Chapter 12 A New National Identity

Chapter 12 A New National Identity

Rise of Nationalism -After the War of 1812, the country was united in their jubilation over what most called victory over Great Britain. The Federalist Party, which had tried unsuccessfully to make a separate peace and potentially secede from the United States at the Hartford Convention, was finished as a political power. With the Federalists demise, the only major political party left was the Democratic-Republican Party, and there was little political division within the country. The success of the War of 1812, combined with the friendly political climate, led to the Era of Good Feelings, a time of great nationalism or pride in the United States. -This friendly political climate was exemplified by the election of James Monroe as President in 1816, who ran unopposed in 1820. -The United States also embarked on a path of peace and improved relations with Great Britain. In 1817, the US and Britain signed the Rush-Bagot Agreement, which limited naval power on the Great Lakes, ensuring a long lasting peace in the region and ensuring Canada s security. America and Britain also signed the Convention of 1818, which guaranteed US fishing rights off of the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada. The United States and Britain also came to an agreement over the US-Canadian border, established at the 49 th parallel, from the Great Lakes to the Rockies, and both countries agreed to jointly occupy the area known as Oregon. These diplomatic agreements indicated a new era of cross-atlantic cooperation between the countries, which still continues today. -Americans also looked to add Spanish Florida to the growing United States. In 1818, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, son of former President John Adams, began negotiating with Spain to prevent raids by Florida s Seminole Indians into the American state of Georgia and to allow American settlement there. In the meantime, President Monroe sent troops led by War of 1812 hero General Andrew Jackson to secure the US-Florida border. Without being authorized to do so, Jackson invaded Florida and raided Seminole villages in what became known as the First Seminole War. He also raided Spanish towns and forts and overthrew the Spanish governor of Florida. Needless to say, Spain was outraged. Monroe wanted to punish Jackson, but could not since his actions were quite popular with the American public. Spanish authorities also realized that eventually, America would add Florida to its growing territory one way or the other, and thus agreed to give Florida to the United States in the Adams-Onis Treaty. As part of this treaty the US agreed to give up any claims it had to Texas through the Louisiana Purchase.

The Monroe Doctrine -Spain had a number of problems with its colonies in the Americas, and this helps explain why it so easily gave up its claim to Florida to the United States. A number of its colonies in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America were now openly calling for independence and challenging Spanish rule. Many of these Spanish colonists were inspired by the American and French Revolutions, and their promise of republican forms of government, freedom, and liberty. -By the 1820 s, many Spanish colonies began to declare their independence, beginning a process openly supported by politicians in the United States. -These revolutions were led by Simon Bolivar, referred to as Latin America s version of George Washington, inspiring the various people of Spanish America to fight for independence. Bolivar was a very popular figure in the United States, and these revolutions in Latin America reminded Americans of their own American Revolution years before. -Many American politicians wanted to ensure that European powers would no longer interfere in the affairs of their former colonies, including President Monroe. He, along with Secretary of State J.Q. Adams, wrote a historic document called the Monroe Doctrine, outlining America s foreign policy towards the nations of Europe. A doctrine is a simple set of guidelines or rules to follow. It stated that European influence and colonization efforts would no longer be tolerated in the Western Hemisphere, and that attempts to do so would possibly be met with force. Essentially, the United States was the foremost power in the Americas, and European power and influence were no longer welcome. The Monroe Doctrine, obviously, was not well-received in Europe, but few European countries questioned it or tested the American resolve or ability to defend its interests. -The independence of Latin American countries, combined with the new relationship established between these countries and the US through the Monroe Doctrine, indicated a shift in world power. Europe no longer held a monopoly on world power, and could no longer deny the growing power and influence of the United States. This, in turn, led to an immense feeling of national pride in the United States. However, conflicts over slavery would soon bring this Era of Good Feelings to an end.

Expansion and Improvements -By this time many Americans believed that it was the natural course of America to spread west across the North American continent. As they did so, many Americans wished to improve the country s infrastructure, build new towns and cities, and add new markets for American farmers and merchants to sell their goods. However, as new territory was added to the country, questions arose over the existence of slavery in these territories and new states that were carved from them. -The debate over slavery in the territories and new states came to a tipping point in 1820 when Missouri applied for statehood in the United States. Missouri wanted to join the United States as a slave state. At the time, the United States was composed of 11 free states and 11 slave states, keeping the balance of free and slave states equal. The addition of Missouri would upset that balance, giving the slave states more states overall but perhaps more importantly, a majority in the US Senate. Northern states controlled the House of Representatives because of their larger population, and they proposed that Missouri be added as a slave state but only under the conditions that importing future slaves to Missouri be illegal and that all future children of Missouri slaves be freed at age 25. These proposals outraged Southern politicians. The admission of Missouri and the status of slavery in the territories and new states threatened to divide the country. -Henry Clay of Kentucky proposed a compromise. Known as the Missouri Compromise, it had three primary conditions: 1) Missouri would be admitted to the Union as a slave state, 2) Maine would be admitted to the Union as a free state, and 3) Slavery would be prohibited in territories and new states above the line of latitude 36 30 North. Also implied by this agreement is that every time a new slave state was added, a free state would be added, and visa-versa, to maintain the balance between slave and free state. This agreement would help Clay gain the reputation as a man of compromise in Congress. -In addition to organizing the Missouri Compromise, Clay is also known for proposing a plan to improve the country s infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), which he felt would open new markets, increase trade, and new settlement in the West, all improving the nation s economy. He proposed the American System, in which tariffs (import taxes) would be placed on foreign goods, and the revenue from these taxes would be used to improve the countries infrastructure. Some lawmakers questioned whether or not the Constitution gave power to Congress to create such a plan. Southern lawmakers, in particular, worried that a tariff on British goods, for example, would lead to a retaliatory tariff by Britain on American goods, hurting the Southern economy. In any case, most of the internal improvements, such as the building of roads, canals, railroads, etc. would primarily be funded by private individuals and companies and state governments instead.

New Roads and Canals & The Election of 1824 -Prior to the introduction of the American Plan, most roads in the country were poorly constructed. Travel and transportation took a great deal of time, even over short distances. As we have learned, Henry Clay of Kentucky wished to improve the nation s infrastructure in order to improve transportation, lower shipping costs, and encourage growth. He wanted to connect sources of raw materials to areas where those natural resources could be turned into manufactured products, and those products could be shipped back to markets in the West. -One major infrastructure project was the construction of the Cumberland Road, also known as the National Road. Originally, it ran from Cumberland, Maryland to Wheeling, Pennsylvania. Construction began in 1815 and was completed in 1818. Over time, however, the road would be extended to Illinois by the mid 19 th century. This road would finally provide a reliable transportation route through the rugged terrain of the Appalachian Mountains, which had been a major obstacle to travel and trade up until this point. This road was especially helpful to farmers in the Great Lakes region and Ohio River Valley, allowing them to transport goods over land to markets on the east coast, rather than having to ship them down the Mississippi to New Orleans. -Another major infrastructure project was the construction of the Erie Canal, which ran from Buffalo, NY, on Lake Erie to Albany, NY on the Hudson River. The Hudson River could then be traversed all the way to New York City, one of the country s largest ports. Using a series of locks, or chambers, the canal allowed barges to be raised and lowered along the route according to changes in elevation. Typically barges were pulled along the canal by horses or other animals on towpaths. At the time of its completion in 1825, it was the longest canal in the world, and although it cost NY taxpayers a great deal of money, the increased trade and profits earned through the canal made its construction worth the costs. The success of the canal also encouraged other states to build canals across the country. -In the Election of 1824, John Quincy Adams, son of former President John Adams, ran against Andrew Jackson for the Presidency. In this election, Jackson won the most popular votes, but did not have the required 2/3 majority of the electoral votes, and the election was to be decided in the US House of Representatives. Henry Clay, now the Speaker of the House of Representatives, supported Adams, and encouraged the House to elect Adams. After the election, Clay was chosen as Adams Secretary of State; many viewed this with skepticism, arguing that Adams bought Clay s support by promising him a post within Adams cabinet, a corrupt bargain according to Jackson s supporters.

The Jackson Presidency -The presidency of John Quincy Adams was troubled from the very start with charges of favoritism and corruption within his administration. Henry Clay s appointment as Secretary of State had angered many members of Congress who felt that Adams had bought Clay s support in the election of 1824. This scandal would become a major point during the election of 1828, a rematch between Adams and Andrew Jackson. -Since the creation of the Constitution of 1787, voting rights had gradually expanded across the country. Many states removed restrictions of property ownership as a requirement to vote. As the number of voters increased, parties began holding nominating conventions to select the presidential candidate for their political parties. As more people gained voting rights and participated in politics, this new, expanded democracy would come to be called Jacksonian Democracy after Andrew Jackson, called a man of the people since he came from humble beginnings. -Jackson was seen as more representative of the common man, such as the farmer, the frontiersman, and the slaveholders of the South. In the election of 1828, Adams ran as a National Republican, and Jackson was the nominee of the newly created Democratic Party, formed to ensure Jackson s victory in the election. Jackson chose South Carolina senator John C. Calhoun as his vice-presidential running mate. Jackson portrayed Adams as a privileged New Englander, born into wealth, the son of a former President, and a member of the country s elite political insiders, out of touch with the common man. Adams, Jackson said, had everything handed to him in life and did not have to work hard to succeed. Jackson also reminded the American public of the corrupt bargain between Adams and Clay in the election of 1824 and also pointed out that he (Jackson) won the popular vote in that election. Jackson portrayed himself as a common man, a man of the people from humble beginnings, a war hero, and a supporter of states rights, wanting to reduce the power of the federal government. -In the end, Jackson won the election by a large margin. His portrayal of Adams as a privileged aristocrat and himself as a common man of the people had worked, and he was overwhelming elected. The election is often remembered for Jackson s inauguration party on the White House lawn, in which ordinary citizens were invited to take part. During the raucous celebration, the White House and its grounds were damaged. -Many who supported Jackson s run for president were awarded with positions in the federal government; this exchange of support for power was known as the spoils system, from the saying to the victor belong the spoils. Some of Jackson s opponents would say this was somewhat hypocritical of Jackson, considering his criticism of the relationship of J.Q. Adams and Henry Clay after the election of 1824.

The Nullification Crisis -As President, Andrew Jackson immediately set about setting policy for the United States. -One of the major issues that arose during the Jackson presidency was that of the protective tariff, called the Tariff of Abominations in the South. (An abomination is something to be despised.)the purpose of the tariff was to protect American manufacturing from foreign competition. Typically, Northern states, which relied heavily on manufacturing and trade, supported the tariff, which they argued would help the nation s economy grow. The country still relied largely on cheaper, mass produced foreign goods imported from Britain. By introducing a tariff, the price of these foreign goods would rise, encouraging Americans to purchase domestically made goods. Southern states, on the other hand, disliked the tariff. Southerners argued that the tariff did not benefit them, as they had little manufacturing, and only served to make goods more expensive, a violation of free trade and enterprise. Furthermore, they said, the tariff hurt their trading relationship with countries like Great Britain, who imported large amounts of Southern cash crops such as cotton and tobacco. Southerners worried that foreign countries would retaliate with tariffs of their own against American exports, harming the Southern economy. Southern politicians saw the tariff as a violation of their rights and unconstitutional. -This led to the Nullification Crisis of 1832. In this crisis, Southern leaders stated they had the right to nullify, or declare null and void, acts of the federal government they considered to be a violation of their rights and unconstitutional. They reasoned they had the ability to do this under the idea of states rights, and the idea that federal power is strictly limited under the Constitution. The federal government, they argued, was given no power to create tariffs under the Constitution. Northern senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts disagreed, citing the necessary and proper clause of Article I of the Constitution. -The crisis reached a boiling point when South Carolina refused to enforce the tariff or collect taxes at its major ports, including Charleston. South Carolina s legislature declared the federal tariff to be null and void, and threatened to secede if its demands were not met. They felt that President Jackson would support them in this crisis, as Jackson was a known supporter of states rights. However, Jackson believed it was his duty to enforce federal law as President, and threatened military action against South Carolina if it did not comply. In response, Vice-President John C. Calhoun, who was from South Carolina and a strong supporter of the nullification doctrine, resigned from office. To avoid escalating the crisis further, the federal government agreed to reduce the tariff over time, and South Carolina agreed to enforce the tariff.

McCullough v. Maryland and the Bank of the United States -While President Andrew Jackson upheld the federal government s power and the enforcement of the tariff, he often sided with the states on other issues. This led many to nickname Jackson King Andrew I because they felt he acted more like a King rather than a President carrying out his duties under the Constitution. -Jackson supported limited government power when it came to the Bank of the United States, first created under the Washington administration as a place to deposit the nation s money and as an institution that could loan money to the government. Many believed the Bank was never allowed under the Constitution and gave the federal government too much power. Congress renewed the Bank s charter in 1816, and had to be renewed every 20 years. Jackson threatened to veto the existence of the Bank the next time it came up for renewal in Congress. -Many states, particularly in the South, agreed with the idea that the Bank was unconstitutional and was an abuse of federal power. Combined with the idea that states should hold more political power than the federal government, some states even took action against the Bank. Maryland, for instance, passed laws that taxed the Bank of the United States. Basically, a state government was taxing an institution of the federal government. -Maryland s taxation of the Bank of the United States resulted in a civil case known as McCulloch v. Maryland, which was ultimately decided by the US Supreme Court under Chief Justice John Marshall. James McCulloch, the cashier of the Bank s Maryland branch, arguing that Maryland could not tax an institution of the federal government, and thus refused to pay the tax. Maryland then sued McCulloch in order to enforce the tax. When the case reached the Supreme Court, Marshall and the court made two important points. First, Marshall and the court upheld the constitutionality of the Bank, citing the necessary and proper clause of Article I. Secondly, the Court said, as an institution created by federal law, Maryland could not tax the bank. Marshall cited, or referred to, the Supremacy Clause in the Constitution, which stated that federal law was supreme over state laws, and thus Maryland could not levy taxes against federally created institutions. The overall effect of this decision was to again reassert the power of the federal government over the states. -Andrew Jackson, who sided with the federal government during the Nullification Crisis, campaigned against the Bank of the United States, and when Congress tried to renew it in 1832, Jackson vetoed the bill. The Bank was dead.

The Van Buren Presidency -Jackson s actions as President made him many enemies, and those who felt that Jackson had abused his power formed a new political party whose goal was to elect a President who would federal government and presidential authority. In 1834 Jackson s opponents formed the Whig Party, the forerunner to the modern Republican Party. The Whigs supported a weak President and a strong Congress; in this way, the people s representatives (Congress) would have more authority in governing the country. -The Democratic Party chose former Secretary of State and then Vice- President under Andrew Jackson, New Yorker Martin Van Buren, to run as their candidate in the 1836 election. The Whig Party chose four candidates to run for their party. Andrew Jackson strongly supported Van Buren s bid for the nation s highest office, and the voters trusted Jackson. So, they elected Van Buren. -However, Martin Van Buren would never achieve the popularity that Jackson did, and his presidency was marked by economic depression. In the Panic of 1837, caused by poor financial decisions during the Jackson administration, the country s economic growth slowed, many lost their jobs, and many others went bankrupt. Van Buren could do little to help the country out of its economic woes, and this made him unpopular. Despite the fact that it was Jackson s economic policies that eventually caused the depression, Van Buren took the blame. -This economic depression would cost Van Buren the election of 1840, in which he ran against Whig Party candidate William Henry Harrison, who chose John Tyler of Tennessee as his Vice-Presidential candidate. They ran under the famous campaign slogan Tippecanoe and Tyler Too, referencing Harrison s famous victory at the Battle of Tippecanoe over Tecumseh s native American confederation. Harrison followed the campaign strategy of former President Jackson: he portrayed himself as a common man from humble beginnings, despite coming from a wealthy New England family. The Whigs accused Van Buren of being a tool of the rich and wealthy, while Harrison wanted what was best for the average American. This type of campaign became known as a Log Cabin Campaign because, like Jackson before him, Harrison was portrayed as having been born and raised in a log cabin in order to make him seem more like the average American citizen. -Harrison was elected by a large margin, and Harrison became the first Whig Party President. However, Harrison died two months after taking office, making him the shortest serving President in American history. Vice- President John Tyler would take office and serve out the remainder of Harrison s term.

Indian Removal -As the country expanded and settlers moved west, the status of various native American tribes came into question. Some native Americans agreed to move peacefully to allow American settlements of their lands; others resisted violently. -One such resistance movement became known as the Black Hawk War, in which Black Hawk, a chief of the Sauk Indian tribe, resisted being forced off his people s land in the state of Indiana. Black Hawk argued that the land belonged to his people, and could not be owned by any one person. At first, the Sauk tried to resist peacefully; however, after being attacked by American soldiers, Black Hawk led his people in a war against the United States. Unfortunately, the Sauk were no match for the US military, and he and his people surrendered. By 1850, the Sauk had been completed removed from the state of Indiana. -Americans in the southeast also pushed for the removal of various native American tribes in states such as Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. In 1830, Andrew Jackson, well known for his desire to push natives from their lands, encouraged Congress to pass the Indian Removal Act in 1830, which authorized the federal government to seize all native American lands east of the Mississippi River. Congress created the Indian Territory, today known as the state of Oklahoma, as the new home for these displaced tribes. Some, like Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, said these actions were for the benefit of the native Americans, and would protect them from future conflict with American settlers. Congress also created the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a federal agency responsible for the removal of native Americans to the Indian Territory and other reservations in the territories. The Bureau of Indian Affairs still exists today and operates under the executive Department of the Interior. -The first tribe in the southeast to move to the Indian Territory was the Choctaw tribe of Mississippi after the Choctaw signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, in which they ceded (gave up) over 7 million acres of their land. They then began the long journey to the Indian Territory in the winter of 1831-1832. Due to a lack of supplies and the cold of winter, many Choctaw died along the way. This was a sign of things to come, and as other tribes heard of the Choctaw s fate, they began to resist removal from their lands more violently. In Alabama, the Creek Indians were forcibly removed, with many Creek being led to Oklahoma in chains. The Chickasaw tribe of Mississippi was also forcibly removed, and many of that tribe died on the journey to Oklahoma as well. -None, however, would experience the hardship that the Cherokee Indians of Georgia would experience.

The Cherokee and Seminoles -The Cherokee Indians of Georgia chose a different tactic in order to avoid being removed from their lands. Instead of moving to Oklahoma or violently resisting removal from Georgia, the Cherokee instead began the process of assimilating into American society. The Cherokee began to adopt American culture, government, and way of life in hopes that this would allow them to keep their ancestral homelands. -The Cherokee invited Christian missionaries to their land to establish schools and churches; Cherokee children were taught the English language and learned to read and write. Until this point, no native American tribes had written languages. A Cherokee named Sequoya developed a written version of the Cherokee alphabet and language in order to better fit in with American society and its educational system. The Cherokee began publishing a newspaper known as the Cherokee Phoenix, which was printed in both the English and Cherokee language. The Cherokee also created a democratic constitution with which they hoped to govern themselves and potentially be recognized as an independent nation. The Cherokee elected a president named John Ross to lead them. -Despite these efforts to assimilate into American society, they were forced from their lands upon the discovery of gold on Cherokee lands. The government of Georgia tried to forcibly remove them, and the Cherokee filed a lawsuit in order to prevent this. In the Supreme Court case known as Worcester v. Georgia, the Cherokee argued they were an independent native American nation, only answerable to the federal government of the United States, and therefore Georgia had no authority over them. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Marshall agreed; the Court ruled that only the federal government had authority to remove the Cherokee. This was another Supreme Court decision that asserted greater federal power over the states. Georgia ignored the Court s decision and removed the Cherokee anyway. President Jackson refused to interfere, and most Americans supported the Cherokee s removal. The Cherokee then began what was infamously known as the Trail of Tears, the long and deadly journey to the Indian Territory. Thousands of Cherokee died along the way from starvation, disease, and cold. -Seeing the fate of their fellow natives, the Seminole tribe of Florida violently resisted removal to Oklahoma. In what became known as the Second Seminole War, the Seminole, led by a chief named Osceola, fought against American troops sent to remove them. Although Osceola was captured, his people fought on, and in the end, the US government allowed the Seminole to stay on their lands, the cost in money and soldiers lives becoming too high for the effort to be worth it. The Seminole were the only southeastern tribe to successfully resist being removed from their ancestral lands.