Contents 1 Civis Duplex Sum: Two Layers of Citizenship in a Dialogue of Equality... 1 1.1 From Subject to Citizen.... 2 1.2 Duplex Citizenship.... 4 1.3 Justification of the Cases Selected.... 6 1.4 Road Map.... 7 1.5 Note for the Reader... 10 1.6 Appendix 1: Terminology... 10 1.6.1 Federal, Horizontal Versus Vertical, State Versus State.... 10 1.7 Appendix 2: Types of Equality.... 12 1.7.1 Uniform Equality.... 12 1.7.2 Non-discrimination... 13 1.7.3 Cross-Border Equality.... 13 1.7.4 Portability.... 13 References.... 13 Part I The Development of United States Citizenship 2 Subjecthood in England and the British Empire.... 17 2.1 Introduction.... 18 2.2 Calvin s Case.... 19 2.3 The Glorious Revolution.... 29 2.4 Subjecthood in the North American Dominions... 41 2.4.1 Immigration and Naturalization in England.... 42 2.4.2 The Constitutional Position of the Colonies... 48 2.4.3 Naturalization in the Colonies.... 53 2.5 Conclusion: The Declaration of Independence as the Point of Departure of the American Constitution from the British Constitution.... 57 References.... 64 vii
viii Contents 3 From Revolution to Constitution to Civil War: US Citizenship in Its Youth.... 67 3.1 Introduction.... 68 3.2 Independence: The Watershed Moment.... 69 3.2.1 Subjecthood and Citizenship: Revolutionary Doctrine... 70 3.3 The Postwar Years: Tying Up Loose Ends.... 78 3.4 The Further Articulation of Citizenship: Immigration and Naturalization... 81 3.5 Citizenship Under the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.... 83 3.6 The Naturalization Act of 1790.... 96 3.7 The Naturalization Acts of 1795, 1798, and 1800.... 99 3.8 Conclusion: Immigration and Naturalization.... 106 References.... 107 4 Horizontal Conflict in United States Citizenship Before the Civil War.... 109 4.1 Introduction.... 110 4.2 Slavery and the Constitution: Three Provisions.... 112 4.2.1 The Apportionment Clause... 113 4.2.2 The Slave-Trade Clause.... 116 4.2.3 The Fugitive Slave Clause.... 116 4.3 Equality and the Constitution: Four Forms.... 120 4.3.1 Excursion: Federal Citizenship and Allegiance.... 129 4.4 Equality at the Point of Collision with Slavery.... 130 4.4.1 Horizontal Norms Regarding Slavery: Comity and the Full Faith and Credit Clause.... 131 4.4.2 Vertical Norms Regarding Slavery: The Northwest Ordinance and the Fugitive Slave Clause.... 134 4.4.3 The Schism Widens Between the States: Prigg v. Pennsylvania.... 139 4.4.4 Slavery and Territorial Expansion: Dred Scott v. Sandford.... 143 4.5 Conclusion: The Failure of Horizontal United States Citizenship.... 148 References.... 151 5 A New, Vertical Beginning for United States Citizenship.... 153 5.1 Introduction.... 154 5.2 The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments.... 154 5.2.1 The Formal Introduction of a Vertical United States Citizenship and Human Rights Standard.... 161 5.3 The Long Road to Substantive Equality Based on US Citizenship... 162 5.3.1 The Tilden-Hayes Compromise: The Political Abrogation of the Reconstruction Amendments.... 163
Contents ix 5.3.2 The Slaughterhouse Cases and Plessy v. Ferguson: The Judicial Abrogation of the Reconstruction Amendments... 164 5.3.3 Wong Kim Ark: The Cinching of Birthright US Citizenship.... 171 5.4 The Only Way is Up: Toward the Full Development of Civil Rights... 176 5.4.1 Edwards v. California and Mitchell v. United States.... 177 5.4.2 Brown v. Board of Education: Effectively Instituting a Uniform Equality.... 182 5.4.3 Legislating Uniform Electoral Equality and Cross-Border Equality.... 184 5.4.4 A revival of the Privileges or Immunities Clause?.... 189 5.5 Conclusion: United States Citizenship as a Vertical Norm... 191 References.... 196 Part II The Development of European Union Citizenship 6 European Integration as a Project of the Member States.... 199 6.1 Introduction.... 200 6.2 The Postwar European Idea, Leading up to the European Coal and Steel Community... 202 6.2.1 The Hague Line... 206 6.2.2 The Westminster Line.... 211 6.2.3 The First Community: The ECSC.... 213 6.3 The European Economic Community: The Early Years Leading up to the Emergence of the Citizen.... 217 6.3.1 From the Worker to the Citizen: Political Developments.... 224 6.3.2 European Citizenship via Freedom of Movement: Racial Criteria?................................. 230 6.3.3 Freedom of Movement: Forms of Equality.... 241 References.... 244 7 The De Facto Community Citizen Emerges.... 247 7.1 The European Court of Justice Confirms An Incipient Form of Citizenship.... 248 7.1.1 The Big Bang of the Community Legal Order: Van Gend & Loos and Costa v. ENEL.... 252 7.1.2 The First Community Citizen: Unger... 255 7.2 Excursion: British Citizenship, Allegiance, and the Community.... 263 7.2.1 British Citizenship, Commonwealth Citizenship, and Decolonization.............................. 271 7.2.2 British Citizenship avant la lettre, Toward Membership in the Community.... 278
x Contents 7.3 Levin: Further Defining the Worker.... 285 7.3.1 Reverse Discrimination : Morson and Jhanjan.... 290 7.3.2 Bringing Cross-Border Equality Back Home... 292 References.... 298 8 The Maastricht Treaty Introduces European Union Citizenship De Jure.... 301 8.1 Moving Toward Formal Citizenship........................ 302 8.1.1 Gravier and the Constitutional Struggle to Establish a Vertical Citizenship Through Equality... 307 8.2 The Treaty of Maastricht, the Foundation of the European Union and the Formal Introduction of Union Citizenship.... 316 8.2.1 The Spanish Contribution to Union Citizenship... 318 8.3 Rights of Movement and Residence in Union Citizenship: The First Decade... 321 8.3.1 Konstantinidis.... 323 8.3.2 Martínez Sala.... 324 8.3.3 Bickel and Franz... 325 8.3.4 Grzelczyk.... 326 8.3.5 Baumbast and R: A Layer Cake of Cross-Border Equality... 329 8.3.6 Garcia Avello and the Portability of Rights.... 338 References.... 344 9 The Union Legislature Elaborates on Union Citizenship; the Court Responds.... 347 9.1 Directive 2004/38: The Consolidation in the Secondary Legislation of the Rights of Residence Based on Union Citizenship.... 348 9.1.1 The Substance of the Directive... 348 9.1.2 The Legislative Process Behind the Directive: The Addition of Non-traditional Partnerships.... 351 9.2 Interlude from the Court: Zhu and Chen.... 358 9.3 Second-Class Union Citizenship?... 361 9.3.1 Formally Second-Class Union Citizens: Citizens of Accession States.... 362 9.3.2 Substantively Second-Class Union Citizens: Sedentary Union Citizens.... 364 9.3.3 Carpenter.... 369 9.3.4 Eind... 370 9.3.5 Metock et al... 374 9.3.6 Reverberations in the Member States on the Use of Mobility by Second-Class Union Citizens.... 378 9.3.7 Chakroun.... 381
Contents xi 9.4 Rottmann and Ruiz Zambrano: Union Citizenship Gains an Additional Vertical Dimension and Starts to Breach the Purely Internal Situation.... 383 9.4.1 Background: Micheletti and Kaur.... 383 9.4.2 Rottmann... 393 9.4.3 Ruiz Zambrano.... 399 9.4.4 Shirley McCarthy.... 403 9.4.5 Dereci, Iida, O and S and L, Alokpa... 406 References.... 411 10 O & B and S & G: The Court Clarifies the Relationship of Freedom of Movement to Union Citizenship.... 415 10.1 Attempting to Escape Reverse Discrimination.... 416 10.2 O&B: The Court Rules on Returning Union Citizens... 422 10.2.1 Genuine Residence and Intent... 422 10.2.2 The Passporting of Family Life... 425 10.3 S&G: The Court Rules on Residentially Sedentary Union Citizens.... 426 10.3.1 Article 45 TFEU.... 426 10.4 Conclusion: The Shift from the Market Citizen to the Residence Citizen.... 431 References.... 435 11 Conclusions... 437 11.1 Review.... 439 11.1.1 Vertical and Horizontal Equalities in the US.... 439 11.1.2 Vertical and Horizontal Equalities in the European Community.... 441 11.1.3 European Union Citizenship and the Frontiers of Its Development.... 442 11.2 Conclusions by Theme.... 444 11.2.1 Inequalities.... 444 11.2.2 People(s) and Representation.... 446 11.2.3 Citizenship s Emergence from a Struggle Against Resistance to Equality.... 447 11.2.4 Mobility and Family.... 451 11.3 The Union s Vertical Citizenship: contra Magnette and Schönberger.... 454 11.4 Epilogue: Two Children Named Ruiz... 458 References.... 460 Cases Cited... 461 Index.... 471
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