TEACHER S RESOURCE GUIDE FOR A video from Knowledge Unlimited, Inc. Video copyright 2004 by Knowledge Unlimited, Inc. Teacher s guide copyright 2004 by Knowledge Unlimited, Inc. ISBN 1-55933-183-6 Student Activity sheets may be duplicated for classroom use.
Introduction Every four years the citizens of America, and in fact people all around the world, witness a unique event the campaign for the presidency of the United States. Most people would agree that in recent presidential elections, there has been a trend toward more mean-spirited campaigning, as each contender has sought to point out the perceived faults and weaknesses of his opponent, rather than explain his own ideas for governing. This mean-spiritedness has been seen, among other places, during television debates and in campaign advertisements on radio and TV. But negative campaigning is not what makes the American electoral process unique. It is its relative civility and harmony, rather, that make it so special. In recent history, political change in some countries has come with much bloodshed and suffering. But for more than 200 years in America, the succession of leadership has occurred peacefully. Why is that? What makes the American electoral process so well-mannered? This video attempts to answer these questions. In addition to giving a historical overview of the election process here in America, the video covers political parties, primaries and caucuses, debates, the national conventions, the electoral college, and the rise in recent years of so-called third party candidates. Finally, the video addresses the problem of low voter turnout. As more and more people have gained the right to vote in this country over the years, there has been a steady decline in the number of people who have chosen to exercise that right on election day. The video makes it clear that in a representative democracy such as ours, citizen participation is vital. Failing to participate could be one of the most serious threats our nation faces. The video answers the claims of many Americans, especially young Americans, that they have no voice when it comes to the important decisions that affect them. Choosing not to vote, as the video states, is surrender, and a guarantee that you have no voice. We hope that this video will not only inform students about the electoral system, but also encourage and inspire them to take part in this extraordinary process.
The Teacher s Resource Guide The guide consists of the following: 1) A brief introduction, describing the video and stating goals and objectives. 2) A Readiness Activity to be completed before viewing the video. 3) Four follow-up lessons to be completed after viewing the video. A reproducible activity sheet accompanies each lesson. 4) The complete script of the video Electing a President. 5) A brief bibliography. Learning Objectives After viewing the video and completing the activities in this guide, students should: 1) Know the basic history of presidential elections in the United States. 2) Understand how the electoral college works. 3) Have a better grasp of how presidential campaigns are financed, and how campaigns are influenced by how much money is ultimately spent. 4) Understand how the Constitution affects the electoral process and the changes the Constitution has undergone to make the system more fair and equitable. 5) Understand the different stages of the electoral process the primaries and caucuses, the national conventions, and the general election. 6) Have a better appreciation for how elections are covered by the mass media. 7) Be better able to do follow-up reading and research into the U.S. electoral process and its history.
A Readiness Activity (Do this activity before viewing the video.) Objective: Students will be better able to appreciate the video as a result of having identified key personalities, terms, and events described in it. Use the Readiness Activity Sheet (opposite page). 1. Split your class into four or five smaller groups. 2. Reproduce copies of the Readiness Activity Sheet and hand them out. This sheet contains a list of names and vocabulary terms. 3. Tell the class that they will be viewing a video on electing a president. Explain why it is important for all United States citizens to know and fully understand how a president is elected. Also indicate that the video will make use of and expand on the terms on their lists. 4. Assign each group three of the names, terms, or events on the sheet. Give each group about 10 minutes to discuss their three items and agree on definitions for them. Ask one person in each group to record the group s definitions for each term in one or two sentences. 5. Have each group read its definitions to the whole class. Discuss the names and other terms, and try to supply more complete information where necessary.
Readiness Activity Sheet In a small group, discuss the three names, terms, or events you have been assigned from the list below. Decide on a definition of each of your names or terms as they relate to the presidential election process. Choose one member of your group to write down the definitions and present them to the class. campaign electoral college executive branch delegates primary elections political party majority third party candidate caucus national conventions elector New Hampshire Kennedy-Nixon debates mass media ballot
Lesson 1 Campaigns in History Objective: Students will increase their knowledge of a specific presidential campaign in history. In so doing, they will gain a better appreciation of the issues involved in that campaign and how they compare to the issues that are at the forefront of today s presidential campaigns. Use Activity Sheet for Lesson 1 (opposite page). 1. Split your class into four or five smaller groups. 2. Reproduce copies of Activity Sheet for Lesson 1 and hand them out. Have students read the instructions on the activity sheet carefully. Answer any questions they have. 3. Have each group research one memorable U.S. presidential campaign that took place at least 20 years ago. Make sure each group has chosen a different campaign. Within each group, different students can do research on each of the questions on Activity Sheet for Lesson 1. 4. After each group has filled out its activity sheet, meet as a class for one large group discussion. Have each group talk about the specific presidential campaign the group chose. 5. Finally, as a class, talk about how these past campaigns compare to the current presidential campaign. If there is not currently a presidential campaign taking place, use the most recent presidential election for comparison.
Activity Sheet for Lesson 1 Campaigns in History As a small group, pick a memorable U.S. presidential campaign from the past that you would like to learn more about. The campaign must have taken place at least 20 years ago. Then divide up the questions below among the members of your group. Use the space provided, and any extra paper you need, to write down your answers to the questions. Be prepared to share your findings with the class. 1. Who were the candidates involved in the presidential campaign your group chose and what political party did each belong to? Provide a brief biographical sketch of each candidate, as well as the election results. 2. Why was the campaign your group chose memorable? 3. What were the major issues that were debated and discussed during the course of this presidential campaign? 4. What are the major similarities you see between the campaign you have researched and the current presidential campaign? What are the major differences? (Note: If there is currently no presidential campaign taking place, use the most recent one for comparison.)
Lesson 2 Money in Presidential Campaigns Objective: Students will gain a better understanding of the role money plays in a presidential campaign. By critiquing and analyzing the current funding format, they will gain a better understanding of its limitations and perhaps come up with some ideas of their own for improving the system. Use Activity Sheet for Lesson 2 (opposite page). 1. Discuss editorial cartoons with the class. Help students understand what makes an effective editorial cartoon persuasive or thought-provoking. You may want to have the class discuss some examples of cartoons from the editorial pages of your local newspaper. 2. Reproduce copies of Activity Sheet for Lesson 2 and hand them out. Have students read the instructions on the activity sheet carefully. Answer any questions they have. 3. Tell the class they will be writing out answers to the questions on the activity sheet itself or on separate sheets of paper as needed. 4. Have students read their responses to the entire class. Use these responses as the basis for a class discussion on the cartoon and its message about the drawbacks and/or benefits of the way presidential campaigns are funded today.
Activity Sheet for Lesson 2 Money in Presidential Campaigns Study the editorial cartoon below carefully. Then write out answers to the following questions on a separate sheet. 1. As you can see, there is a giant pit directly behind the first hurdle that presidential aspirants must overcome in their quest for the White House. Judging by what the first hurdle is labeled, what point is the cartoonist trying to make here? Do you agree with it? Why or why not? 2. Many political observers say the importance of lots of money in a presidential campaign what many refer to in the press as a war chest keeps many individuals who otherwise might make excellent candidates from running. Do you believe this to be true? Why or why not? 3. Over the past several years, there have been many calls to reform, or change, the way political campaigns and not just presidential ones are funded. Imagine that you have been chosen to sit on a high-level commission charged with campaign finance reform. What suggestions would you make to improve the system?
LESSON 3 The Constitution and the Election Process Objective: Students will gain a better understanding and appreciation of the United States Constitution, how it affects the electoral process, and how it has changed over the years to adapt to changes in society. Use Activity Sheet for Lesson 3 (opposite page). 1. Ask students how they think the Constitution affects their everyday lives. You may want to point out a few examples that will make the Constitution less abstract, such as prayer in schools, locker searches, and speech codes. Also, discuss the amendments to the Constitution, why we have them, and the process by which the Constitution can be amended. 2. Reproduce copies of Activity Sheet for Lesson 3 and hand them out. Have students read the instructions on the activity sheet carefully. Answer any questions they have. 3. Have students do research on all of the amendments listed on Activity Sheet for Lesson 3. Tell the class they will be writing out answers to the questions on the activity sheet itself or on separate sheets of paper as needed. 4. Choose several students to read their responses to the entire class. Use these responses as the basis for a class discussion. 10
Activity Sheet for Lesson 3 The Constitution and the Election Process The following five amendments to the U.S. Constitution all affected our nation s presidential elections. In a textbook or other source, find a copy of the Constitution. Read each of these amendments. Then write out answers to the questions that appear below. 15th Amendment 19th Amendment 23rd Amendment 24th Amendment 26th Amendment 1. How did each amendment change our national elections? 2. Which of these amendments do you think has had the biggest impact on our political system? Why? 3. Which of these amendments do you think has had the smallest impact on our political system? Why? 11
Lesson 4 (use this activity during an election year) The Role of the Media Objective: Students will gain a better appreciation of the similarities and differences in the way different branches of the media cover presidential campaigns. Students will also see the particular benefits that different media bring to the coverage of candidates and the candidates ideas for running the country. Use Activity Sheet for Lesson 4 (opposite page). 1. Ask students how they think television, newspapers, newsmagazines, and the Internet are different in the way they cover presidential campaigns. Ask them which medium they think is best suited to giving the public the information they need to know to make an informed choice when they go to the polls. 2. Reproduce copies of Activity Sheet for Lesson 4 and hand them out. Have students read the instructions on the activity sheet carefully. Answer any questions they have. 3. Have students pick one issue they feel strongly about. For three weeks, have students watch and read coverage of the current presidential campaign in newspapers, newsmagazines, on television, and on the Internet. Tell them, as they do so, to pay particular attention to how the different media cover what the candidates have to say about that issue. Encourage them to take notes as they do this, and when possible to actually save news clips and articles. 4. Then, using their notes, articles they have gathered, and their overall impressions, have the students fill out the activity sheet. 12
Activity Sheet for Lesson 4 The Role of the Media How does newspaper coverage of a presidential election campaign differ from television coverage? What about newsmagazines, or news sites on the Web? Pick one campaign issue or incident and, for three weeks, follow accounts of it in the newspaper, in newsmagazines, on TV, and online. Compare and contrast how this event was covered in each medium. Use extra paper if you need to. Attach any relevant articles to this sheet. ISSUE: MAGAZINE REPORTS: NEWSPAPER REPORTS: TELEVISION REPORTS: ONLINE REPORTS 13
SCRIPT We take a lot for granted in the United States when a presidential administration changes hands. In some countries, such changes come with tanks and machine guns. In our country, they come with conventions, balloons, and brass bands. But behind all this hoopla is a very interesting and very complicated process that s deeply rooted in the history of our nation. And in looking at this history, we re going to find out some very surprising facts about how we elect a president. The rules about who can be elected President in this country are fairly simple. In order to be elected President, a candidate must be a natural-born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years old, and have lived in the United States for at least 14 years. In theory, anyone who meets these three requirements could become the next President. Electing a President: How the Presidency Developed The United States became an independent nation in 1776, with the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Between 1776 and 1783, the new nation had to fight the British in the Revolutionary War to assure its independence. During its first few years of existence, the new nation had no President. We fought the war against Great Britain partly because we didn t like the idea of living under an all-powerful leader, the King. So, under the country s first set of laws, called the Articles of Confederation, the Congress ran the government without a central leader. Running the country without any leadership turned out to be extremely difficult. So in the new Constitution, which was drafted in 1787, the nation s founders included a provision for one central leader a President. But because the concerns about an all-powerful, king-like leader did not go away, the new Constitution provided for a system of "checks and balances" with three branches of government that all put limits on one another. The Legislative branch, the Congress, would make the laws. The Judicial branch, the court system, would make sure the laws follow the Constitution. And the Executive branch, headed by the President, would enforce the laws and set the policies and tone of the government. When we watch TV coverage of a presidential election, it s easy to get the impression that the President is chosen by a straight popular vote. This is not true. George Washington, the first President, was selected by the new country s leaders. This didn t cause any controversy because Washington was the most popular man in the country. How the President is Selected: The Electoral College Some historians believe that the founding fathers simply didn t trust the average citizen to make such an important choice. But it was also true that the lack of radio, television, national newspapers, and other mass communication meant that the average person knew very little about the candidates for President. So our nation s founders created an indirect method of choosing a leader called the Electoral 14
College, a committee of people that meets to actually elect the President. The electors were people from the local area. Average citizens were likely to know more about them than about the people running for President. Because of this, many felt that the electors would make better choices than the voters themselves. This indirect and complicated system is very much the law of the land today, though some people would like to see it eliminated. So the next presidential election will, like all others before it, not be a direct election. Even though we check the candidate of our choice on the ballot, we are not actually voting for that candidate. We are voting for an elector, who will meet in December with the other members of the Electoral College to choose the President. But today, although the electors are not legally bound to vote for the candidate that won in their area, they almost always follow the people s choice. The Operation of the Electoral College Each state gets a different number of electors. The number of each state s electors equals the total number of Representatives plus the two Senators from the state. This means that states with large populations get more electors. The state with the most electors is California. The candidate who wins the popular vote in most states gets all the electoral votes even if it was a really close race. In Maine and Nebraska, it is possible for the electoral votes to be split among the candidates. However, this has never happened in an election. So the winner of the presidential election is actually the person with the most electoral votes not the most popular votes. This means that a candidate can actually win the popular vote and lose the election. This has happened four times in U.S. history with the elections of John Quincy Adams, Rutherford B. Hayes, Benjamin Harrison, and George W. Bush. In the 2000 presidential election, Bush won 271 electoral votes five more than opponent Al Gore even though Gore got nearly 540,000 more popular votes than Bush did. The electoral college can also create an election where a landslide electoral vote victory could happen with some close wins in a number of states and a very small difference in the popular vote. One example of this was the Kennedy-Nixon election in 1960. The popular vote was extremely close, yet Kennedy won by a large electoral vote margin. Political Parties Political parties have been part of our system almost from the beginning and have a powerful effect on the electoral process. Although George Washington disliked parties and never joined one, parties became a basic part of presidential elections by the 1790s. The main role of political parties is to organize people around a set of political beliefs or ideas. Today we have two major parties the Democrats and the Republicans. The Democrats trace their roots back to the 1790s, when Thomas Jefferson ran for President on the Democratic- Republican Party ticket, opposed by Alexander Hamilton, who ran as a candidate of the Federalist Party. Andrew Jackson, who was elected President in 1828 and 1832, is credited with building the modern Democratic Party. This early political cartoon shows Jackson riding a donkey. The 15
donkey soon became a symbol of the Democratic Party. The Republican Party began in 1854 around the issue of ending slavery. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican candidate to be elected President. Third-Party Candidates So-called third party candidates in presidential elections have been around for a long time. A third-party candidate is any presidential candidate who does not run as a member of one of the two main political parties. While no third party candidate has ever won a presidential election, third party candidates can influence an election s outcome. In 1912, Teddy Roosevelt ran for president as a candidate of the Bull Moose Party, against the Democratic and Republican candidates. This was the only election in which a third-party candidate brought in more votes than a candidate from one of the two major parties. Roosevelt split the Republican vote with William Howard Taft, which allowed Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson to win the election. Ross Perot ran as an Independent Party candidate in the 1992 election and a Reform Party candidate in 1996. Even though he did not win, he had a major effect on the elections. He took part in TV debates alongside the Republican and Democratic candidates, and he had a strong impact on the final numbers, bringing in nearly 20 million votes in 1992, and just over 8 million votes in the 1996 election. In the 2000 presidential election, Ralph Nader ran as the candidate for the Green Party. Although he received only 4 percent of the popular vote, many people believe Nader s third-party candidacy took votes away from Democratic candidate Al Gore and helped bring about Gore s defeat. The Voting Process: Who s Got the Vote? Historically, our leaders didn t have much faith that average people were intelligent enough to make informed decisions, and the opportunity to vote was severely restricted in the past. Originally, only white men who owned property were allowed to vote, but, over time, the vote was extended to all white males. In 1870, after the Civil War, the 15th Amendment to the Constitution was passed. This extended the vote to African American males, as well. But a climate of terror against blacks, coupled with Jim Crow laws that strictly segregated whites and blacks in many Southern states, effectively stopped black people from voting in the South until the 1960s. It took the pressure of the civil rights movement and the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to guarantee the vote to all African Americans. Women were the last group to gain the constitutional right to vote, with the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920. In 1971, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18. Today, every U.S. citizen age 18 and over can vote, except for those who have been convicted of serious crimes. But even though the vote is now open to all kinds of people, the people who have been elected President still fit a common 16
mold thus far, they have all been white Christian males. Many people believe that the growing diversity of our population will someday lead to the election of a President who doesn t fit this traditional mold. Primaries and Caucuses The process of electing a President takes place in two major steps. The first is the primaries and caucuses, and the second is the general election. The primaries and caucuses begin early in the year in which a general election will be held. The list of candidates competing for President can be quite long at this point. However, if the incumbent the person in office is running for re-election, he generally has little or no opposition from within his own party. Most states have primary elections in which all eligible voters can participate. A few states use the caucus system, in which delegates are chosen at a meeting called a caucus that only party members attend. There are two sets of primaries and caucuses, one for the Democrats and one for the Republicans. This means that you can only vote in one primary either Democratic or Republican not in both. When you vote in the primary, you re actually voting for delegates from a party. These delegates go to their party s national convention and make the official decision about who will be the party s candidate. These first votes are shadows of earlier times when the party leaders felt that most people didn t know enough or care enough to make the right choice for President. Instead people voted for local representatives who they knew and trusted to make these decisions for them. Today, however, delegates usually follow the popular votes. The Primary Campaign During the primary phase of an election year, candidates campaign to be their party s presidential candidate. The candidate from each party who receives the most delegates in his party s primaries and caucuses advances to the general election. In the past, the primary campaign was a process that took months, beginning in February with the New Hampshire primary and the Iowa caucus. Candidates often spent a lot of time campaigning in these states. Although Iowa and New Hampshire don t have a lot of delegates, a win in these states can give a candidate a good shot at establishing himself as the favorite and winning his party s nomination. In recent years, however, the primary season has gotten shorter. Some of the bigger states grew concerned that, even though they had large numbers of delegates, the presidential candidates were being decided before their primaries and caucuses were held. So, many states moved their primaries or caucuses to February or early March, hoping to get the attention of the major candidates and play a deciding role in the election. This shift could have a big impact on the campaign for president. Will party nominees be 17
decided even earlier than in the past even as early as mid-march? Will this mean that there won t be much of a chance for the campaigns of lesser-known candidates to pick up steam? And will the public become bored with the campaigning and burn out on the whole election process months before the actual election? National Party Conventions The Republican and Democratic parties both hold conventions, or huge party meetings, in the summer before the general election. The people running for President are officially chosen, or nominated, at these conventions. The presidential nominee also announces his choice for a running mate that is, the person who will be the vice-presidential candidate. Since the 1950s, these conventions have been televised, which gives the party leaders a chance to give speeches and promote their ideas for the country. The first presidential nominating convention took place in 1831. Only 116 delegates from 13 states took part. Today, each convention will host as many as 2,000 delegates from all 50 states, plus Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico, and other U.S. territories. By the time the conventions begin, everyone usually knows who will win, because the primaries and caucuses have already determined who most of the delegates will vote for. Sometimes, all the delegates from a state are pledged to vote for the primary winner. But more often, each candidate gets a share of the delegates that equals the popular vote in the state. Some of the delegates chosen at caucuses are uncommitted, which means that they have the freedom to vote for whichever candidate they want within their party. In order to win the party nomination, a candidate has to have the vote of a certain number of delegates. Delegates place names in nomination. A roll call vote is then taken. This vote is called the roll of the states. In the past, it took many roll call ballots before a nominee was selected, because the winner had to have two-thirds of the delegate votes. This was very difficult, especially with three or more candidates. At the 1924 Democratic Convention, 103 separate roll call ballots had to be taken before the nomination. Today, since most of the delegates are pledged to vote for a particular candidate, it only takes a simple majority to win the nomination, and the selection is usually accomplished on the first ballot. The General Election Campaign General elections are held after the conventions, on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The contest is between the Democratic and the Republican nominee, plus any third party candidates. 18
Campaigns now need huge staffs and a lot of complicated planning. In front of all this behind-the-scenes activity is the candidate, who must make hundreds of stops all over the country. Historically, the whistle-stop campaign was popular. Trains would take candidates across the country and provide valuable exposure in the time before radio and TV. Today s modern campaigns demand that candidates fly to different cities or states in the same day. Candidates tend to spend the most time in states with lots of electoral votes, such as New York and California, as well as other areas where they may feel they need to work harder to get votes. The Role of Money and the Media The mass media allows candidates to reach millions of people every single day more than they ever possibly could in person. Television coverage means that small town speeches can get national exposure. Newspapers offer more in-depth coverage of speeches, visits, and press conferences than TV can provide. But many say that TV changed the face of campaigning. The Nixon-Kennedy debates in 1960 were a major milestone. Some experts say that Nixon won the actual debates but lost the election, in part because he looked sallow, unshaven, and untrustworthy on TV, whereas Kennedy looked stronger and more confident. Some have criticized the media for focusing on the wrong things. They say that too much time is spent on gossip related to character or personal history rather than on the candidate s political ideas. Still, the issue of character continues to be an important factor in today s presidential campaigns. Many other people worry that money plays too big a role in the campaign process. It s commonly believed that it costs at least $25 million to run for President in this country. TV time is very expensive, and candidates need money to produce ads, retain large campaign staffs, and travel all over the country. Because of this, money is a necessary ingredient in today s campaigns. Critics point out that this money often comes from special interest groups that want big favors in return for their financial support. And it s very difficult for anyone to become a major force in the election without the support of one of the major parties. One big exception to this was Ross Perot, who in 1992 was able to use his personal fortune to get a lot of attention. Many candidates now begin fundraising for their campaigns well before they even announce their candidacy. Early in the 2000 campaign, Vice President Al Gore and Texas Governor George W. Bush raised record amounts of campaign money even before they announced they were running, while others decided not to run because they simply didn t have enough financial backing. 19
Some say the powerful combination of money and the media has changed the way the President is elected, and that this limits the number of good candidates. Does this mean that the old belief that anyone can be President has been thrown out by the realities of money and power? The Problem and Challenge of Elections and Politics The President of the United States has been called the most powerful person in the world. Every four years, we repeat the steps needed to elect a new leader. But when we go through the long process of choosing the President, the question we must always ask ourselves is: Are we choosing someone who will guide us to uphold the ideals that the drafters of the Constitution first set forth when they created the office? And as we ask this question we also have to consider a disturbing truth about U.S. elections. The right to vote is open to nearly every adult American, but the percentage of eligible voters who actually vote is quite low. Since 1924, the percentage of voters has fluctuated between 49 percent and 63 percent. The last time more than 60 percent of eligible voters went to the polls was in 1968, at the height of the Vietnam War. There are many countries in this world that suffer violence and repression when governments change. And the right to vote has been defended by countless brave and dedicated Americans, from the suffragists struggle for voting rights for women... to the civil rights workers courageous attempts to register southern blacks who had been denied the right to vote through terror... to those who fought in our nation s wars. In light of all these Americans who sacrificed their careers and lives to win or defend our right to vote, the low number of Americans who bother to show up to vote is a very sad trend indeed. The people who don t vote may really feel that they can t possibly make a difference. But we need to realize that this kind of indifference could be as big a threat to our democracy as a foreign invasion. So as you reach voting age, you may want to give this some thought, especially if you feel that you have an opinion on the way things should be going. Voting is one way to give a real voice to those opinions. Not voting is surrender, and a guarantee that you have no voice. For Further Reading... Aldrich, John H. Why Parties? Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. Barton, Mary Ann and Paul C. Barton, eds. Campaign: A Cartoon History of Bill Clinton s Race for the White House. Fayetteville: The University of Arkansas Press, 1993. 20
Boller, Paul F. Presidential Campaigns. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. Brauer, Carl M. Presidential Transitions: Eisenhower Through Reagan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Editorial Cartoons by Kids. Madison, Wis: Zino Press Children s Books, 2000. Gendron Hofmann, Nancy. How the U.S. Government Works. Emeryville, California: Ziff-Davis Press, 1995. Matalin, Mary and James Carville. All s Fair. New York: Random House and Simon & Schuster, 1994. Meltzer, Milton. American Politics: How It Really Works. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1989. Paletta, Lu Ann and Fred Worth. The World Almanac of Presidential Facts. New York: World Almanac, 1988. Polsby, Nelson W. and Aaron Wildavsky. Presidential Elections: Contemporary Strategies of American Electoral Politics. New York: The Free Press, 1991. Popkin, Samuel. The Reasoning Voter: Communication and Persuasion in Presidential Campaigns. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1991.