Detailed Contents Preface Acknowledgments xix xxiii SECTION I: THE PURPOSE AND STRUCTURE OF AMERICAN COURTS 1. Introduction: Law and the Judicial Function 3 Why Study Courts? 4 What Is Law? 5 The Code of Hammurabi 6 Two Opposing Perspectives: Conflict and Consensus 6 The Consensus Perspective 7 The Conflict Perspective 8 What Is the Relationship of Law to Justice? 9 The Rule of Law 10 Justice, the Law, and Packer s Models of Criminal Justice 12 Box: The Crime Control Model 13 The Ongoing Battle 16 Judicial Functions 17 How Judges Make Law 18 Box: View From the Field 18 Development of the Common-Law System 19 Precedent 20 Stare Decisis 21 Box: Comparative Courts 23 The Role of Courts in the Criminal Justice System 25 Adjudication 25 Oversight 26 Box: Movies and the Courts 26 Summary 27
Discussion Questions 28 Key Terms 29 Internet Sites 29 Cases Cited 29 References/Future Reading 29 2. Sources of Law 31 Introduction 32 Sources of Law 32 Sources of Individual Rights 34 The Constitution 34 Box: Comparative Courts 35 The Bill of Rights 35 Due Process and the 14th Amendment 44 The 14th Amendment 44 Box: Current Research 45 Standard of Review 46 Incorporation of the Bill of Rights Into the 14th Amendment 47 Total Incorporation 49 Total Incorporation Plus 49 Selective Incorporation 50 Box: View From the Field 51 Summary 51 Discussion Questions 52 Key Terms 52 Internet Sites 53 Cases Cited 53 References/Future Reading 53 3. Types of Law 55 Introduction 56 Types of Law: Criminal and Civil 56 Criminal Law 57 Box: View From the Field 68 Box: Comparative Courts 75 Civil Law 76 Box: Current Research 86 Box: Movies and the Courts 87 Summary 87 Discussion Questions 88 Key Terms 89
Internet Sites 90 Cases Cited 90 References/Future Reading 90 4. Court Organization and Structure 91 Introduction 92 Jurisdiction 93 The Structure and Jurisdiction of U.S. Courts 94 A Brief Historical Overview 94 Federal Courts 96 District Courts 98 Courts of Appeal 99 The Supreme Court 100 State Courts 102 Courts of Limited Jurisdiction 103 Courts of General Jurisdiction 104 Appellate Courts 104 State Supreme Courts 105 Box: View From the Field 106 Court Actors 106 Judge 107 Prosecutor 109 Defense Attorney 111 Jurors 113 Other Actors 115 Overview of the Criminal Process 116 Pretrial Proceedings 116 Pretrial Motions 119 Box: Current Research 119 Jury Selection 119 The Trial 120 Sentencing 121 Appeals 122 Box: Comparative Courts 122 Summary 123 Discussion Questions 123 Key Terms 124 Internet Sites 125 Cases Cited 125 References/Future Reading 125
SECTION II: COURTROOM ACTORS AND THE COURTROOM WORKGROUP 5. Prosecutors 129 Introduction 130 Historical Evolution of the American Prosecutor 131 The Federal Prosecutor 132 State Prosecutors 132 Selection of the Local Prosecuting Attorney 132 Organization and Operation of the Prosecutor s Office 135 Box: View From the Field 136 The Prosecutor s Duties 136 Nonprosecutorial Duties 138 Prosecutorial Duties 139 Box: Current Controversy 144 Box: Current Research 146 Assistant Prosecutors at Work 149 Working in the Courtroom Workgroup 149 Box: Comparative Courts 151 The Expansion of the Prosecutor s Discretionary Power 152 Prosecutorial Ethics and Misconduct 153 Box: Current Controversy 155 Community Prosecution 156 Albany, New York: Prisoner Reentry Program 156 Wayne County, Michigan: Drug Property Seizure and Abandoned Properties Program 157 Box: Movies and the Courts 157 Summary 158 Discussion Questions 159 Key Terms 160 Internet Sites 160 Cases Cited 160 References/Future Reading 161 6. Defense Attorneys 163 Introduction 164 Defense Attorney s Role in the Criminal Justice System 164 Historical Development of the Right to Counsel 166 Box: Comparative Perspective 170 Limits on the Right to Counsel 170 At What Point in a Proceeding Is There a Right to an Attorney? 172
Indigent Defense Systems 173 Assigned Counsel Programs 173 Contract Attorney Programs 175 Public Defender Programs 177 Private Versus Appointed Counsel: Which Is Better? 178 Effective Assistance of Counsel 179 Right to Self-Representation 180 Box: Current Controversy 181 Right to an Attorney of One s Choosing 182 Ethics and Lawyer-Client Relationships 183 Box: View From the Field 188 Realities of Being a Defense Attorney 188 Box: Current Research 191 Box: Movies and the Courts 192 Summary 192 Discussion Questions 193 Key Terms 194 Internet Site 194 Cases Cited 195 References/Future Reading 195 7. Judges 197 Introduction 198 Roles and Duties of Judges 199 Prearrest Judicial Roles 199 Postarrest/Pretrial Roles 200 Judicial Roles at Trial 201 Judicial Roles Posttrial 203 Box: Current Research 204 Administrative Duties 205 Box: View From the Field 206 Judicial Selection 206 Federal Judicial Selection 207 State Judicial Selection 208 Box: Current Controversy 212 Box: Current Research 215 Judicial Socialization and Development 216 Box: Comparative Perspective 218 Accountability for Judicial Misconduct 220 Summary 221
Discussion Questions 221 Key Terms 222 Internet Sites 223 Cases Cited 223 References/Future Reading 223 8. Criminal Defendants and Crime Victims 225 Introduction 226 Criminal Defendants 226 Defendants in Court 226 Defendant Characteristics 227 Defendant Rights Prior to Prosecution: The Exclusionary Rule 229 Defendant Rights in the Court Process 231 Box: Current Controversy 238 Hearsay and the Right of Confrontation 240 Victims and the Criminal Courts 243 Victims Rights 244 Box: Current Research 247 Victims Advocates Offices 248 Summary 248 Discussion Questions 249 Key Terms 249 Internet Sites 249 References/Further Reading 250 9. The Jury 251 Introduction 252 History of Jury Trials 253 The Role of the Jury 255 Box: Comparative Perspective 257 Limits on the Right to Trial by Jury 257 Jury Size and Unanimity Requirements 258 Jury Size 259 Unanimous Verdicts 260 The Selection of Jurors 260 Stage 1: Developing a Master Jury List 261 Box: Current Controversy 264 Stage 2: From Venire to Jury Panel 264 Stage 3: Voir Dire 265
Reforms to the Jury System 267 Allowing Jurors to Take Notes 267 Allowing Jurors to Question Witnesses 268 Providing Written Copies of Instructions for Each Juror 268 Providing Jurors With a Trial Notebook 268 Box: Current Research 271 Jury Nullification 272 Box: Current Controversy 273 Box: Movies and the Courts 273 Summary 274 Discussion Questions 274 Key Terms 275 Internet Sites 275 Cases Cited 276 References/Future Reading 276 SECTION III: COURT PROCESSES 10. Pretrial Procedures 281 Introduction 282 Arrest 282 The Charging Decision 283 Factors Affecting Prosecutors Charging Decisions 285 Box: Current Research 287 Constraints on Prosecutorial Discretion 287 Information 290 Indictment 290 Grand Jury 290 Booking 291 Initial Appearance 291 Bail 291 Arraignment 292 Discovery 292 Pretrial Motions 293 Box: View From the Field 296 Plea Bargaining 297 Defining Plea Bargaining 299 Ad Hoc Plea Bargaining 301 Arguments for and Against Plea Bargaining 302
Attempts to Restrict or Ban Plea Bargaining 304 The Predictors of Plea Bargaining: Does Race Matter? 306 Box: Comparative Courts 308 Jury Selection 309 Challenges to the Jury 309 Box: Current Controversy 310 Summary 311 Discussion Questions 311 Key Terms 312 Internet Sites 312 Cases Cited 312 References/Future Reading 313 11. The Criminal Trial 317 Introduction 318 Opening Statements 320 The Presentation of Evidence 321 Box: The Importance of the Proof Beyond a Reasonable Doubt Requirement In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358 (1970) 322 Box: A Directed Verdict in a Murder Case South Carolina v. Arnold, Opinion No. 25892 (2004) 323 Box: The Lawyer Who Asked One Question Too Many 324 Calling Witnesses 325 Privileged Communications 325 Privilege Against Self-Incrimination 326 Evidence and Rules of Evidence 327 Types of Evidence 328 Rules of Evidence 329 Box: National Academy of Sciences Report on Forensic Evidence 330 Box: Current Controversy 331 Objecting to Introduction of Evidence or Questions Asked 332 Closing Arguments 333 Box: Sowing Seeds of Reasonable Doubt in the Minds of the Jurors 333 Box: Playing the Race Card in a Criminal Trial 334 Instructing the Jury 335 Box: Examples of Standard Jury Instructions: State of Florida 337 Jury Deliberations and Verdict 338 The Verdict: Guilty or Not Guilty? 338 Box: Wrongful Conviction and Exoneration of the Innocent 339
Box: Current Research 343 Requirement of Unanimity 345 Jury Nullification 345 Box: Current Controversy 347 Hung Juries 349 Announcing the Verdict 349 Box: Comparative Courts 350 Box: Movies and the Courts 351 Summary 351 Discussion Questions 352 Key Terms 353 Internet Sites 354 Cases Cited 354 References/Future Reading 354 12. Sentencing 357 Introduction 358 The Goals of Sentencing 359 Why Punish? 359 How Much to Punish? 362 Box: How Much Should We Punish Those Who Violate the Law? 363 Box: Justifying the Punishment 367 The Judge s Options at Sentencing 367 The Death Penalty 368 Incarceration 370 Box: Sentencing Systems in State and Federal Jurisdictions 371 Probation 375 Box: Comparative Criminal Justice 376 Intermediate Sanctions 377 The Future of Intermediate Sanctions 379 Box: Current Controversy 380 How Do Judges Decide? Modeling the Sentencing Process 382 Box: View From the Field 383 Modeling the Sentencing Process 385 Box: Current Research 387 Box: Movies and the Courts 392 Summary 393 Discussion Questions 395 Key Terms 396
Internet Sites 396 Cases Cited 396 References/Future Reading 397 13. The Appellate Process 401 Introduction 402 Appealing to a Higher Court 402 Pre- and Postadjudication Appeals 403 The Appellate Court s Options 405 Box: Harmless Error Rule (Rule 61) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure 406 Appealing the Sentence 407 Box: Focus on an Issue Wrongful Conviction and the Innocence Protection Act of 2004 408 The Appellate Courts 409 State Appellate Courts 409 Federal Appellate Courts 410 Box: Clarence Earl Gideon s in forma pauperis Appeal to the United States Supreme Court 413 Box: Comparative Courts 416 The Right to Appeal 416 Box: Warren McCleskey s Odyssey Through the Appellate Courts 418 Protections Afforded to Appellants 419 The Writ of Habeas Corpus 419 The Origins of Habeas Corpus 420 Postconviction Review Through Habeas Corpus 420 Expanding and Restricting Habeas Corpus 421 Box: The Federal Courts and Frivolous Appeals 423 Box: Current Controversy 424 How Do Appellate Courts Decide? 426 Box: Current Research 426 Box: Oral Arguments Before the U.S. Supreme Court 428 Box: Furman v. Georgia: Nine Separate Written Opinions 430 Summary 431 Discussion Questions 432 Key Terms 432 Internet Sites 432 Cases Cited 433 References/Future Reading 434
14. Specialized Courts 435 Introduction 436 Problem-Solving Courts 437 Origins of Problem-Solving Courts 437 Distinguishing Features of Problem-Solving Courts 439 Box: Six Principles of Problem-Solving Justice 439 Box: The Mandate of Problem-Solving Courts 441 Restorative Justice and Problem-Solving Courts 441 Drug Treatment Courts 443 Box: View From the Field 443 Key Elements of Drug Courts 444 Box: Eligibility Criteria for the Douglas County (NE) Adult Drug Court 445 Do Drug Courts Work? 445 Box: Measuring the Performance of Drug Treatment Courts 446 Box: Current Research 448 Domestic Violence Courts 449 Box: New York Judge Judith S. Kaye on the Need for Domestic Violence Courts 449 Box: Comparative Courts 450 Domestic Violence Courts and Victim Safety 451 Do Domestic Violence Courts Work? 452 Other Problem-Solving Courts 452 Juvenile Courts 454 Jurisdiction and Operation of the Juvenile Court 456 Transfer of Juveniles to Criminal Court 458 Box: Current Controversy 461 Summary 462 Discussion Questions 463 Key Terms 464 Internet Sites 464 Cases Cited 464 References/Future Reading 464 Glossary 469 Case Index 483 General Index 487 About the Authors 507