Chapter 6 The New Republic
Objectives Describe the steps Washington s administration took to build the federal government. Analyze Hamilton s plans for the economy and the opposition to them. Explain how a two-party system emerged in the new nation.
Terms and People administration the officials in the executive branch of government precedent an act or statement that becomes a tradition to be followed Cabinet the officials who head the major executive departments and advise the President tariff a tax on imported goods loose construction a broad interpretation of the Constitution relying on the implied powers of Congress
Terms and People (continued) strict construction a narrow interpretation of the Constitution that limits Congress s actions only to powers specifically granted by the Constitution Whiskey Rebellion a 1794 protest by farmers in western Pennsylvania against an excise tax on whiskey political party a group that seeks to win elections, hold public office and shape policy Democratic Republicans a political party that emerged in opposition Hamilton s economic policies
How did debate over the role of government lead to the formation of political parties? In 1789, the leaders of the new government gathered in New York City. The newly ratified Constitution was entirely untested. The Framers and President Washington knew that a good start was essential to the future of the republic.
When George Washington took office, he quickly established precedents for running the government. The new President faced many challenges: The nation was $52 million in debt. There was no navy and the army had only 400 men. Spain closed the Mississippi River in New Orleans to American trade. British troops occupied American land along the Great Lakes.
Washington picked a Cabinet to head each of four executive departments in his administration. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson Secretary of War Henry Knox Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton Attorney General Edmund Randolph
The first task was to set up a court system. The Judiciary Act of 1789 created district and circuit courts and a sixmember Supreme Court. The office of Attorney General was created to prosecute legal cases for the government. John Jay was appointed as first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
The huge debt was the biggest problem facing the administration. Treasury Secretary Hamilton suggested a controversial plan. Rather than just pay off the federal debt, state debts would also be assumed. Bonds for the total would be sold to wealthy investors. The investors would receive annual dividends and have a stake in helping the government succeed.
Hamilton also proposed chartering a Bank of the United States to regulate state banks and insure business support. He hoped to replace the nation s agriculturally based economy with commerce and manufacturing. He proposed a high tariff or tax on imported goods to earn revenue and encourage domestic industry.
Hamilton saw 3 advantages to his financial plan The plan would establish the 1 nation s financial credibility. 2 The plan would gain political support from the wealthiest Americans. 3 The plan would enrich investors who would reinvest and thus create more wealth.
Antifederalists objected to Hamilton s plan. They had 3 main complaints: 1 2 3 Wealth would be redistributed from farmers to merchants, and from the South to the North. Investors who purchased the bonds would make huge profits at everyone else s expense. The costs would fall on farmers who would have to pay excise taxes and higher tariffs.
Secretary of State Jefferson opposed Hamilton s plan. Most southern states had already paid off their war debts. He asked why they should bail out northern states that still had debts. Jefferson believed the plan gave more power to the government than the Constitution permits.
Jefferson favored a strict construction of the Constitution. Congress should be limited to the powers specifically granted by the Constitution. The Constitution does not give Congress power to charter a national bank, so it could not establish one Hamilton favored a loose construction of the Constitution. Congress has implied powers, and can take any actions not specifically forbidden. The Constitution allows Congress to act for the general welfare so it could charter a bank.
In 1791, Congress accepted Hamilton s plan. The national debt was funded, outstanding state debts were assumed, excise taxes and tariffs were levied, and the bank was authorized. In return, a new national capital was created. Washington D.C. would be placed in the South, on the banks of the Potomac River.
An excise tax on whiskey led to divisions between the Federalists and the Antifederalists. To increase their profits, western Pennsylvania farmers made whiskey from their grain. The whiskey tax reminded farmers of British taxes. In 1794, some farmers resisted payment. They harassed and intimidated tax collectors.
Hamilton persuaded Washington to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion. Twelve thousand militiamen were sent to deal with the rebellion, but they found no organized insurrection. Then Jefferson criticized Hamilton for the use of federal force to repress legitimate criticism.
Despite Washington s disapproval, two political parties emerged. Democratic Republicans Favored Jefferson and Madison. This party was strongest among Southerners and farmers. Federalists Favored Hamilton and was strongest among Northerners, merchants, and the wealthy.
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Section 2
Objectives Explain how territorial expansion brought Americans into conflict with the British and with Native Americans. Describe American relations with Britain, France, and Spain. Analyze how the political parties debates over foreign policy further divided them.
Terms and People Little Turtle Native American war chief who defeated forces sent to stop his attacks on settlers in the 1790s Battle of Fallen Timbers 1794 victory over Native Americans by General Anthony Wayne, led to the Treaty of Greenville and American control over Ohio French Revolution 1789 republican uprising in France against the monarchy that led to public executions and war with Britain
Terms and People (continued) John Jay Chief Justice who negotiated a 1794 treaty with Britain that removed British soldiers from American lands, but maintained restrictions on American shipping XYZ Affair incident in which French officials demanded bribes to stop French seizures of American shipping Alien and Sedition Acts 1798 Federalist laws to restrict public criticism and deport immigrants, most of whom supported Democratic Republicans
Terms and People (continued) Virginia and Kentucky resolutions hinted that states had the power to nullify federal laws like the Alien and Sedition Acts, which some Democratic Republicans thought were unconstitutional Aaron Burr In 1800, tied Jefferson in the electoral college but became Vice President after Hamilton urged Federalist congressmen to back Jefferson; later killed Hamilton in a duel
How did foreign policy challenges affect political debate and shape American government? The nation had to make peace with Native Americans, control its borders, and establish itself internationally. Renewed war between Britain and France threatened neutrality. Americans debated the right response to the European war and to the French Revolution.
The new nation faced challenges on its Northwestern frontier The British continued to man forts along the Great Lakes and supplied Indian tribes with guns. In 1790 and 1791, Chief Little Turtle defeated American forces as the Miami Indians fought American expansion in the Ohio Valley.
In 1794, General Anthony Wayne defeated Native Americans in the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The resulting Treaty of Greenville gave the United States control of Ohio.
In 1789, Americans were divided by the French Revolution. Federalists worried about the anarchy and public executions. Hamilton feared Democratic Republicans might want to do the same in America. Jefferson decried the violence but publicly admired the French Revolution s principles.
Americans worried about the British and French war as most of America s imports and tariff revenue came from British goods. President Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality in 1793. But Britain ignored him and began seizing American trading ships at sea. Americans were outraged but powerless to respond.
Washington sent John Jay to London in 1794 to negotiate. The resulting Jay Treaty was narrowly approved by the Senate. Federalists praised it, but Democratic Republicans attacked it. Britain agreed to give up forts on American soil, but Americans had to repay pre- Revolutionary War debts still owed to Britain. Restrictions remained on American shipping, which angered many Americans.
A more popular treaty was negotiated with Spain in 1795. The Pinckney Treaty allowed Americans to use the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans. With access to the Mississippi, removal of the British, and defeat of the Native Americans, settlers poured into the west. 400,000 Americans lived beyond the Appalachians by the 1800s.
President Washington chose to retire in 1796. He felt that voluntary retirement after two terms would set an important precedent for the peaceful transfer of the office. In his farewell address, Washington advised successors to temper political strife in favor of national unity. In foreign affairs, he suggested Americans avoid entangling alliances with European powers.
Washington helped the young nation survive early tests. As first President, Washington: Established the government Opened western land for settlers Kept the nation out of war Developed foreign trade Put the nation on solid financial footing.
John Adams was elected President in 1796. He narrowly defeated Thomas Jefferson who became his vice president. The vote was largely along regional lines with the North favoring Adams, the South favoring Jefferson.
Early in his presidency, Adams faced a crisis with France. Like Britain, France began seizing American ships. Adams sent envoys to negotiate. French officials identified only as X, Y, and Z demanded bribes for the right to negotiate. Americans were angered and insulted by this XYZ Affair and sentiment against France grew.
In 1798 Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts making it a crime to criticize the government. Immigrants, most of whom tended to favor Democratic Republicans, could be deported. The Federalists claimed the acts were necessary to stop unhealthy criticism that was undermining trust in the government. Democratic Republicans charged the acts violated the Constitution and were aimed to silence the opposition.
In 1798 and 1799, Jefferson and Madison attacked the Sedition Act as unconstitutional in the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions. They suggested that states can nullify or reject unconstitutional laws.
Shortly before the 1800 election, President Adams sought peace with France. This angered other Federalists, including Alexander Hamilton who then worked against Adams bid for re-election. Despite a tie in the electoral college, Thomas Jefferson won the presidency.
The election of 1800 changed the balance of power and ended the Federalist era in government. The election of 1800 marked an important precedent as the first peaceful transfer of power from one political party to another.
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Section 3
Objectives Understand why some saw Jefferson s election as a republican revolution. Explain the impact of John Marshall s tenure as Chief Justice of the United States. Identify the importance of the Louisiana Purchase. Analyze Jefferson s foreign policies.
Terms and People bureaucracy the departments and workers that make up the government John Marshall Federalist Chief Justice who established the Court s power of judicial review judicial review the power to decide if an act of Congress or the President is constitutional Marbury v. Madison 1803 Supreme Court case that established the Court as the final judge of the constitutionality of congressional actions
Terms and People (continued) Louisiana Purchase land between the Mississippi River and Rocky Mountains bought by the U.S. from France in 1803. Lewis and Clark Expedition Corps of Discovery sent by Jefferson to explore the Louisiana Territory Barbary War 1801-1805 action against Barbary pirates who demanded protection money for U.S. shipping in the Mediterranean Sea
Terms and People (continued) embargo a government order suspending trade, usually to force some action impressment practice of forcing American for U.S. shipping in the Mediterranean sailors to serve in the British navy
What were the successes and failures of the Jefferson administrations? In 1800, the Democratic Republicans took control of the presidency, Congress, and most of the state governments. The Federalists would never reclaim national power. The Jefferson administration changed the style of government and acquired a huge new territory for the United States.
Thomas Jefferson viewed his election as a revolution in the principles of government. Federalists held expensive public displays to gain respect for the government. Jefferson ended these as aristocratic threats to the republic. Where the Federalists discouraged public criticism, Jefferson invited debate and discussion.
In office, Jefferson reduced the national debt, the government bureaucracy, and the size of the military. He also cut unpopular taxes on land and whiskey. He benefited from increased revenues from foreign trade and the sale of western lands.
A last-minute appointee, Marshall eventually served 35 years and participated in over a thousand court decisions. In 1801, John Marshall became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Marshall wrote over half of those decisions himself, more than any other Supreme Court Justice.
Marshall applied four Federalist principles to his decisions: 1 2 3 The Court s role is to determine if acts of Congress or the President are constitutional, a concept known as judicial review. Federal laws are superior to state laws. The Constitution is to be interpreted broadly based on the government s implied powers. 4 Contracts should be strictly enforced.
Marshall established judicial review in Marbury v. Madison In 1801, outgoing President John Adams appointed William Marbury (Federalist) to be a judge. Incoming Secretary of State James Madison (Democratic Republican) refused to give Marbury his appointment, so Marbury sued. Marshall ruled against Marbury stating that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional.
Marshall s ruling was a stroke of genius that gave the court more power which was a Federalist goal. Because Madison and the Democratic Republicans won the case, he could not appeal. Marshall s decision set the precedent that the Supreme Court is the institution that determines the constitutionality of laws (judicial review).
In 1803, Jefferson doubled the area of the United States by purchasing the Louisiana Territory. Jefferson saw farm ownership as an ideal that freed citizens from a landlord or employer. He wanted to expand the U.S. westward so more Americans could be free farmers. But, French Emperor Napoleon owned Louisiana and threatened to forbid American farmers from using the port of New Orleans.
Jefferson asked to buy New Orleans. To his surprise, Napoleon offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory. Jefferson decided to contradict his strict construction principles. (The power to purchase foreign territory is not specifically granted by the Constitution.) The deal was too good to pass up! The Louisiana Purchase added 828,000 square miles and doubled the U.S. for only $15 million.
Jefferson sent a Corps of Discovery led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the territory. The corps was tasked with learning about the climate, plants, seeds, animals, and native people. The Lewis and Clark Expedition was aided by Sacajawea, a Shoshone woman.
Jefferson faced several foreign affairs challenges. In 1805, the Barbary state of Tripoli raised their price for protection against pirates. Jefferson refused to pay, sending his small navy instead. They defeated the pirates. This Barbary War was America s first overseas victory.
War between France and Britain brought profits for American merchants but also led to trouble. The British Navy began stopping American ships and confiscating their cargo. To meet a shortage of sailors, they also began to force or press American sailors to serve in the British Navy, a practice called impressment.
Jefferson asked Congress for an embargo, hoping a loss of American goods would change Britain s policies. The embargo failed to hurt Britain, but American merchants and farmers suffered from unemployment, bankruptcy, and loss of profits. Despite the failure of the embargo, the U.S. expanded westward, grew economically, and reduced its debt.
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Section 4
Objectives Identify the events that led to the War Hawks call for war. Analyze the major battles and conflicts of the War of 1812. Explain the significance of the War of 1812.
Terms and People Tecumseh Shawnee who attempted to unite the Indian nations to resist expansion by settlers Battle of Tippecanoe Gov. William Henry Harrison defeated the Shawnee in 1811 War Hawks nationalistic western and southern Congressmen who urged war with Britain in 1812 War of 1812 war with Britain, 1812-1815 Andrew Jackson defeated the Creek and Seminole Indians and then the British at New Orleans
Terms and People (continued) Francis Scott Key penned The Star Spangled Banner during the British attack on Fort McHenry The Star-Spangled Banner Key s poem that later became the national anthem Battle of New Orleans American victory by Andrew Jackson routing the British in January 1815 Treaty of Ghent treaty ending the War of 1812 Hartford Convention meeting of New England Federalists who opposed the War of 1812
Why did the United States go to war with Britain, and what was the outcome of that war? In 1812, the United States found itself involved in a major war that tested its strength and the solidarity of its people. Americans managed to fight the war and get the country back on track in its aftermath.
Americans faced trouble from Native Americans. Shawnee warrior Tecumseh and his brother tried to unite Native Americans to fight American expansion. Following victory at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, William Henry Harrison burned Prophetstown, Tecumseh s village. Westerners blamed the British in Canada for arming the Indians, and demanded action.
In 1811, the War Hawks took the lead in Congress. They were led by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina and Henry Clay of Kentucky. They denounced Britain s impressment of U.S. sailors and its support for Native Americans. They believed an invasion of Canada would stop British aid to the Indians and force Britain to respect America at sea.
The War of 1812 began when Congress declared war in June 1812. But the nation was totally unprepared with only a small army and navy. Thomas Jefferson advised Madison that an invasion of Canada would be easy. He proved wrong and repeated attempts to invade Canada failed.
Early on the British were occupied in Europe, allowing several American victories. The small American navy did surprisingly well. Americans won several victories against Native Americans. In 1814, Andrew Jackson defeated the Creek in Alabama. The U.S.S. Constitution defeated H.M.S. Guerrière Oliver Hazard Perry defeated a British fleet on Lake Erie. In 1813, Harrison killed Tecumseh who was aiding the British. But attacks on Canada failed Jackson defeated the Seminoles and seized a fort at Pensacola.
In 1814, Britain defeated France and then launched a four-part offensive in America. 1 2 3 4 British troops occupied eastern Maine. A second army invaded New York from Montreal but was turned back. A third force invaded Maryland, burning Washington D.C., but failed to take Baltimore. A fourth Army headed to New Orleans. They would be routed by Andrew Jackson.
The Americans worst humiliation came when British troops burned the White House and Capitol.
The Treaty of Ghent ended the war. Both sides agreed to return to pre-war boundaries. A commission was set up to discuss any future boundary disputes. Impressment and American neutrality were not discussed.
Several events of the War of 1812 fostered American pride. The British failure to take Fort McHenry in Baltimore inspired Francis Scott Key to write The Star-Spangled Banner. In January 1815, Andrew Jackson crushed the British in the Battle of New Orleans. The battle took place after the war had officially ended. News of a treaty had not yet arrived.
The war was not popular with everyone. A group of Federalists held the Hartford Convention in December 1814 to consider secession and making a separate peace with Britain. After the Treaty of Ghent, these Federalists were discredited as traitors and by 1820, the Federalist Party had disappeared.
The War of 1812
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