These are all standards that can be integrated throughout the year, within various units of instruction. Economics Geography History Research Skills Current Events Strand 5, Concept 1: Foundations of Economics Strand 4, Concept 1: The World in Spatial Terms Strand 1, Concept 1: Research Skills for History Strand 2, Concept 9: Contemporary World PO 1. Explain how limited resources and unlimited human wants cause people to choose some things and give up others. PO 2. Analyze how scarcity, opportunity costs, and tradeoffs, influence decision-making. PO 3. Analyze how individuals, governments and businesses make choices based on the availability of resources. PO 4. Apply Adam Smith s ideas of a market economy to: a. property rights b. freedom of enterprise c. competition d. consumer choice e. limited role of government PO 5. Describe the impact of the availability and distribution of natural resources on an economy. PO 1. Construct maps, charts, and graphs to display geographic information. PO 2. Identify purposes and differences of maps, globes, aerial photographs, charts, and satellite images. PO 3. Interpret maps, charts, and geographic databases using geographic information. PO 4. Locate physical and cultural features (e.g., continents, cities, countries, bodies of water, landforms, mountain ranges, climate zones) throughout the world. PO 5. Interpret thematic maps, graphs, charts, and databases depicting various aspects of the United States and world regions. (Apply to regions studied.) PO 1. Construct charts, graphs, and narratives using historical data. PO 2. Interpret historical data displayed in graphs, tables, and charts. PO 3. Construct timelines (e.g., presidents/ world leaders, key events, people) of the historical era being studied. PO 4. Formulate questions that can be answered by historical study and research. PO 5. Describe the difference between a primary source document and a secondary source document and the relationships between them. PO 6. Determine the credibility and bias of primary and secondary sources PO 7. Analyze cause and effect relationships between and among individuals and/or historical events. PO 8. Analyze two points of view on the same historical event. PO 1. Describe current events using information from class discussions and various resources (e.g., newspapers, magazines, television, Internet, books, maps). PO 2. Identify the connection between current and historical events and issues studied at this grade level using information from class discussions and various resources (e.g., newspapers, magazines, television, Internet, books, maps). PO 3. Analyze how world events of the late 20 th century and early 21 st century affected, and continue to affect, the social, political, geographic, and economic climate of the world (e.g., terrorism, globalization, conflicts, interdependence, natural disasters, advancements in science and technology and environmental issues).
Suggested Timeline 1 st Quarter Unit 1- PEGS 3 Weeks (1 week emphasis on geography and incorporated throughout the year) PEGS intro prior to in depth content instruction. AZ State Social Studies Standards- By Unit Political- Concept 4: Rights, Responsibilities, and Roles of Citizenship Economic- Concept 1: Foundations of Economics Concept : 5 Personal Finance Geography- Concept 2: Places and Regions Concept 4: Human Systems Concept 6: Geographic Applications Essential Questions Suggested Learning Target / Common Core ELA Alignment Political Students will identify PEGS What are the elements within social studies and responsibilities and current events. powers of governments? Example: Natural Disaster What are the different systems countries use to govern their nations? Economic How does the economy impact general life for all people? Geographic In what ways do geographic features and conditions influence historic and current events. Political- direct involvement of state and federal government in re-building process Economic- destruction of local economy Geographic- destruction of land/ environment Vocabulary/Terms (Content/ Academic) Political Government Authority Conflict Constitution/ laws/ rights Economic Employment Supply Demand Finance Geographic Environment Climate Natural resources Social- Concept 4: Human Systems Concept 9: Contemporary World Social In what ways do human interactions affect world events? Social- human casualties, disruption of lifestyle (interruption in day to day activities and amenities) Students will make connections between PEGS Social Culture Language Traditions Values/ Morals
Suggested Timeline 1 st Quarter Continued Unit 2 Civil War AZ State Social Studies Standards- By Unit Strand 1, Concept 6: Civil War and Reconstruction PO 1. Analyze the factors leading to the Civil War: GESD Suggestion: PEGS of North and South prior to the start of the Civil War a. role of abolitionists and Underground Railroad b. Sectionalism and States Rights c. Westward expansion (spread of slavery to new states) d. Missouri and 1850 Compromises e. Dred Scott Decision (S3:C3:PO1) f. KansasNebraska Act PO 2. Determine the significance of the following events of the Civil War: a. firing on Fort Sumter b. major battles Bull Run, Antietam Vicksburg, Gettysburg c. Enactment of the Emancipation Proclamation d. Sherman s march e. surrender at Appomattox PO 3. Describe significance of the following individuals or groups in the Civil War: a. political leaders (i.e., Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis) b. military leaders (e.g., Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, Thomas Stonewall Jackson) c. role of AfricanAmericans d. role of Women Essential Questions Suggested Learning Target / Common Core ELA Alignment What were the strengths and weaknesses of the North and the South? (PEGS) What were the causes of the Civil War related to slavery which led to the Southern secession? Why did neither the North nor the South gain a strong advantage during the early years of the war? How did events/ battles change the course of the Civil War? How did the role as president differ for Lincoln and Davis during the war? How did the roles as generals differ from the North and the South? Compare and contrast the North and the South prior to the start of the Civil War. WHST.7.9 Draw evidence from informational text Evaluate the importance of the issues of the time period that led to the Civil War. Select the one with the most significance and support your claim. (Use list A-F) WHST 7.1 A/ 7.1B CLAIMS Create a timeline of Civil War Battles, which include an evaluation of the effects of each outcome on the progression of the war as a whole. WHST.7.2 informative/ explanatory text Analyze the leadership of the North and the South and evaluate its impact on the direction and result of the war. RH.6-8.1 Cite Text Evidence Vocabulary/Terms (Content/ Academic) Content Abolitionist Underground Railroad Sectionalism Secession States right Border States Emancipation Proclamation Dred Scott Abraham Lincoln Robert E. Lee Ulissess S. Grant William Tecumseh Sherman Thomas Stonewall Jackson Amendment Reconstruction Jim Crow Laws Black Codes Dawes Act Triangular (Slave) Trade Pickett s Charge George Picket Confederacy Union Appomattox Courthouse Total War Minie ball
Civil War Continued PO 4. Analyze the impact of the Civil War on the following personal, social, and economic aspects of American life: a. Americans fighting Americans b. high casualties caused by disease and the type of warfare c. widespread destruction of American property d. change in status of freed slaves e. value of railroads and industry PO 5. Describe the impact of various events and movements that influenced Reconstruction: a. Lincoln s assassination b. Ku Klux Klan and the development of Jim Crow laws c. Freedmen s Bureau d. Civil War Constitutional Amendments *S3C4:PO5 Eighteenth, Nineteenth, Twenty-first Amendment, Black Codes, Dawes Act PO 6. Describe the basic provisions of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth-judicial decision of Plessy v. Ferguson (S3C3:PO1b), and Fifteenth Amendments. How did their contributions change the direction/outcomes of the war? In what ways were the social norms changes due to the Civil War and the status of freed slaves? How did the war change the population, landscape, and industry of the United States? How did Lincoln s assassination influence reconstruction? Why were the laws during Reconstruction so pivotal in rebuilding the United States? Compare and contrast the North and the South post war according to PEGS. Evaluate the social impact of reconstruction as the result of the creation of legislation. (PO 5 and 6) RH.6-8.1 Cite textual evidence WHST.6-8.9 Draw evidence Academic Compromise Civil War Casualties Industrialization Assassination Infection Naval blockade
Suggested Timeline 2 nd Quarter Unit 3 Industrial Revolution and Progressive Era (Complete before winter break) AZ State Social Studies Standards- By Unit Strand 2, Concept 6: Age of Revolution PO 1. Describe how innovations and inventions during the Industrial Revolution impacted industry, manufacturing, and transportation. PO 2. Determine the effect of the Industrial Revolution on the Western World: a. growth of cities b. rise of middle class c. spread of industrialism d. rise of imperialism (covered in Unit 4) e. foundation for future technological advances f. labor issues Strand 1, Concept 7: Emergence of the Modern United States PO 1. Examine the reasons why people emigrated from their homelands to settle in the United States during the late 19th century. PO 2. Describe how the United States was positively and negatively affected by factors and events resulting from the arrival of a large numbers of immigrants. PO 3. Discuss how the Industrial Revolution in the United States was supported by multiple factors (e.g. geographic security, abundant natural resources, innovations in technology, available labor, global markets). Essential Questions Suggested Learning Target / Common Core ELA Alignment How did innovations and inventions influence growth of cities and Determine the PEGS of the industries? AGE of Revolution. What were factors that influenced Industrial Revolution on the Western World? What is the connection between growth of city populations and labor issues? Why did people emigrate to the United States during the late 19 th century? How was the United States positively and negatively affected by arrival of large numbers of immigrants? What were the factors that supported the Industrial Revolution? Produce a list of PROS and CONS of growth of cities resulted from the Industrial Revolution. WHST 6-8.1 A/ 6-8.1B CLAIMS Create and support an argument for either a positive or negative impact of a large number of immigrants arriving in the United States during the late 19 th century. (on cities and industries) WHST6-8.1 argument Write a letter to a government Vocabulary/Terms (Content/ Academic) Content Labor unions Push/ Pull Factors Industrial Revolution Suffrage Trust Busting Conservation Temperance Free Enterprise Academic Innovations Industrialization Urban Rural Suburb Middle class Manufacture Mass production Migration Natural resources Immigration Revolution Reform Textiles Investors Financers Populous
Industrial Revolution and Progression Age continued PO 4. Discuss the relationship between immigration and industrialization. PO 5. Analyze the impact of industrialization on the United States: a. rural to urban migration b. factory conditions c. unions d. influence of big businesses PO 6. Describe the following Progressive Reforms that resulted from the Industrial Revolution: a. labor unions b. Women s Suffrage c. trust busting d. conservation of natural resources e. Temperance Movement How was the United States impacted by the industrialization? How did Progressive Reforms create change in the United States related to PEGS? official lobbying/persuading legislation for labor laws as a result of poor factory conditions. Example: Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire WHST.6-8.2 Relevant Information Compile a list of information relating to one element of the progressive era. Use the information to analyze the significance of a political cartoon and support a given point of view. RH.6-8.2 Central Ideas of a Primary Sources PO 7. [S5C2:PO3] Describe how innovations and investments in capital of the Industrial Revolution (e.g., manufacturing, textiles, transportation, and improvements in technology) contributed to U.S. economic growth and expansion. PO 8. [S5C2:PO1 Microeconomics]Identify the following groups / various institutions contributions to the changing social, political, and economic structure of the United States: a. labor leaders (e.g., Samuel Gompers, Mother Jones) b. social reformers (e.g., Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton) c. industrialists [S5C2:PO4 role in free enterprise system ] (e.g., Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Vanderbilt) d. inventors (e.g., Thomas Edison, Henry Ford) e. Populists (e.g., William Jennings Bryan) f. financiers (e.g., J.P. Morgan, Jay Gould) How did innovations and investments in capital contribute to U.S economic growth and expansion? In what ways did reformers and entrepreneurs contribute to change in social, political and economic structure in the United States? (PEGS) Summarize ways in which a progressive reformer brought about political, social, and/or economic change during this time period. WHST 6-8.9 Draw evidence from informational text Support an argument for an invention that had the greatest impact on society during the industrial period. WHST 6-8.1 Argument Support an argument for an entrepreneur that had the greatest impact on the United States Economy during this time period. WHST 6-8.1 Argument
Industrial Revolution and Progression Age continued Strand 4, Concept 4: Human Systems PO 2. Describe the push and pull factors (e.g., need for raw materials, enslavement, employment opportunities, impact of war, religious freedom, political freedom) that cause human migrations. What were the effects of human migration to the United States during the Age of Industry? Create a graphic organizer classifying the push and pull factors for the industrial period that caused human migration. Summarize findings. WHST 6-8.2 informative/explanatory text PO 3. Describe the effects of human migration (e.g., imperialism, quota system, changing of political boundaries, multiculturalism) in the U.S. and regions of the world. PO 4. Analyze how social (e.g., family), physical (e.g., good climate, farmland, water, minerals), and economic (e.g., jobs) resources influence where human populations choose to live. Strand 3, Concept 3: Functions of Government PO 2. Identify the government s role in progressive reform How did social, physical and economic resources influence where human populations choose to live? What were reforms made by government during this time period and explain their lasting influence on change? Write a new paper article that explains the government s progressive reform to the public of the time period. WHST.6-8.2 informative text
Suggested Timeline 3 rd Quarter Unit 4 American Imperialism AZ State Social Studies Standards- By Unit Strand 2, Concept 7: Age of Imperialism PO 1. Describe the effects of the following factors on the rise of imperialism: a. increased need for raw materials b. increased need for consumers c. nationalism countries increased power PO 2. Describe how areas in the world (e.g., Africa, India, China) were impacted by the imperialism of European countries. PO 3. Describe how industrialization in Japan led to its rise as a world power. PO 4. Describe the impact/ expanding role of American interests in the following during the late 19th century and the early 20th century: a. Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Spanish American War b. China and the Boxer Rebellion c. Colombia and the building of the Panama Canal d. Hawaiian annexation S1C7:PO10 c. Alaska d. Open Door Policy Strand 1, Concept 7: Emergence of the Modern United States PO 9. Describe the following factors that fostered the growth of American imperialism during the late 19th and early 20 th centuries: a. desire for military strength b. interest in new markets c. need for inexpensive source of raw materials Essential Questions Suggested Learning Target / Common Core ELA Alignment What caused a rise of Create a flow chart for elements imperialism power for that lead to a nation s nations during the Age of imperialistic power using Imperialism? informational text. RH.6-8.5 text presents info How were Africa, India, and China impacted by European imperialistic power? How does a nation s industrial power lead to global power? What affect did U.S. imperialism have on developing nations? What were the reasons that the United States desired imperialistic power during the late 19 th century and how did they obtain the power? Analyze primary sources/ political cartoon related to nationalism and use content and academic vocabulary and informational text to discuss/ support the central idea of the illustration. WHST 6-8.9 evidence RH.6-8.2 Primary Source central idea Use evidence to support a claim for a philosophical chairs debate arguing whether the United States had a positive or negative global impact during the Age of Imperialism. WHST 6-8.9 evidence SW prepare a claim for the country responsible for the destruction of the USS Maine prior the start of The Spanish American War using text/ primary source evidence. SW support claim with evidence during a FishBowl Discussion. Vocabulary/Terms (Content/ Academic) Content Imperialism Isolationism Industrialization Annexation Open Door Policy Militarism Nationalism Yellow Journalism Spheres of Influence Rough Riders Monroe Doctrine Panama Canal Boxer Rebellion Academic raw materials resources markets colony harbor
Suggested Timeline 4 th Quarter Unit 5 World War One AZ State Social Studies Standards- By Unit World War One: Concept 5: Government Systems of the World PO 2. Compare different types of governments: a. dictatorship b. totalitarian c. monarchies Strand 2, Concept 8: World at War PO 1. Explain how the following world movements led to World War I: a. militarism b. imperialism c. nationalism d. formation of alliances Strand 1, Concept 7 Emergence of the Modern United States PO 12. Describe the following events that led to United States involvement in World War I: a. shift away from isolationism b. sinking of the Lusitania c. Zimmermann Telegram PO 13. Describe important events associated with World War l: a. anti-german feelings in the United States b. passing of the Selective Service Act c. migration of African Americans to the north d. Wilson s Fourteen Points e. controversy over the Treaty of Versailles Essential Questions Suggested Learning Target / Common Core ELA Alignment How were the types of Create a graphic organizer WWI governments classifying the differences of different? each type of government. Use the information to write an informative text based on the types of WWI governments. WHST.6-8.2 Informative Text How did various movements and ideas influence the start of WWI? Which evens led to the United States involvement in WWI? How was this a shift from isolationism? How did these events impact the course of history? Examples Selective Service Act- WWII Cultural Diversity Anti- Germany- WWII Analyze a political cartoon and determine the type of WWI movement. RH.6-8.2 central ideas of a primary source Analyze a quote from an individual from the WWI time period (soldier, government official, witness to destruction) and analyze its relationship with a secondary source (newspaper article). RH.6-8.9 Relationship between a primary and secondary source Vocabulary/Terms (Content/ Academic) Content Militarism Imperialism Nationalism Formation of alliances Democracy Dictatorship Totalitarianism Monarchies Central Powers Allies Trench Warfare U-Boat Zimmerman Telegram Home front Big 4 War bonds Propaganda Draft Armistice Red Scare Academic Treaty Communism
World War I continued PO 2. Summarize the outcomes of WWI a. Treaty of Versailles (e.g., restrictions on Germany, end of the Ottoman Empire redrawing of European boundaries) b. economic issues (e.g., national debt, spread of socialism) PO 3. Describe the rise of totalitarianism in Europe following World War I: a. Italy under Mussolini b. Germany under Hitler c. Soviet Union under Stalin What were the outcomes of WWI? Why was totalitarianism accepted by European citizens under the various forms of power? Using informative text and primary sources related the Zimmerman Telegram, develop a claim for an alternate ending of WWI (US involvement) had the British not intercepted the telegram or if it had not been sent. RH6-8.1 Primary Sources WHST-6-8.1A Introduce Claim WHST-6-81B Support Claim Socratic Seminar- Discuss how a revision of the Treaty of Versailles would have avoided the negative effects imposed upon Germany, avoiding future conflict. WHST-6-8.1A Introduce Claim WHST-6-81B Support Claim Concept 5: Government Systems of the World PO 1. Discuss how negotiations with foreign governments have led to the development of foreign policy initiatives (e.g., Treaty of Versailles, Fourteen Points, League of Nations). GESD Suggestion- Current forms of foreign policy What made the foreign policy initiatives unsuccessful after WWI? Write an essay -discuss how WWI policies were unsuccessful and the ways in which they could have been successful. Discuss the continued challenges with foreign policies today. RH6-8.1 Primary Sources WHST-6-8.1A Introduce Claim WHST-6-81B Support Claim
Suggested Timeline 4 th Quarter (Continued) Unit 6 The Great Depression AZ State Social Studies Standards- By Unit Strand 1, Concept 8: Great Depression and World War II PO 1. Identify economic policies and factors (e.g., unequal distribution of income, weaknesses in the farm sector, buying on margin, stock market crash) that led to the Great Depression. PO 2. [S4C5:PO2] Determine the impact and consequences of natural hazards and manmade crises (e.g., unemployment, food lines, the Dust Bowl, droughts, earthquakes, and the western migration of Midwest farmers) of the Great Depression. PO 3. Describe how the following New Deal programs affected the American people: a. works programs (e.g., WPA, CCC, TVA) b. farm subsidies c. Social Security Essential Questions Suggested Learning Target / Common Core ELA Alignment How did programs Categorize the functions of the implemented by the New government implemented Deal impact society in the programs and summarize their United States during the significance during the Great Great Depression to the Depression. present? RH.6-8.1 Cite textual evidence WHST. 6-8.1 How did natural and manmade disasters, both environmental and economic, impact the United States during the Great Depression? How did New Deal programs improve the lives of Americans during the Great Depression? Write a short narrative as either a farmer or investor during the Great Depression era that depicts what they face during this time period. Use appropriate unit vocabulary. RH.6-8.1 Cite textual evidence WHST. 6-8.1 Vocabulary/Terms (Content/ Academic) Content Great Depression Income Speculation Credit Stock Market Unemployment Franklin D. Roosevelt New Deal Fireside Chats (100 days) Dust Bowl Second New Deal Social Security Hoovervilles Academic Public Works PO 4. Describe how Pearl Harbor led to United States involvement in World War II. (part of 8 th grade standards) PO 5. Describe the impact of World War II on economic recovery from the Great Depression. (part of 8 th grade)
Suggested Timeline 4 th Quarter (Continued) Unit 7 Arizona History AZ State Social Studies Standards- By Unit Strand 3, Concept 1: Foundations of Government PO 1. Analyze the significance of the principles and ideals of the following documents: b. Bill of Rights (as related to specific time periods) 8 th Grade PO 2. Analyze Arizona s transition from territory to statehood: a. locations of capital b. founding people c. Arizona s constitution Strand 2, Concept 8: PO 11. Describe major factors in Arizona history (e.g., territorial status, mining, constitutional convention) leading to statehood. Essential Questions Suggested Learning Target / Common Core ELA Alignment What was the process for Arizona becoming a state? How did Arizona progress from territorial status to statehood? Create a timeline of events based on Arizona s transformation from territory to statehood. Explain elements of events by summarizing the significant related to PEGS. WHST6-8.2 informative WHST 6-8.9 evidence from informational text Vocabulary/Terms (Content/ Academic)
Arizona s College and Career Ready Standards Reading Writing 6 8.RH.1. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources. 6 8.RH.2. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions. 6 8.WHST.1. Write arguments focused on discipline specific content. a. Introduce claim(s) about a topic or issue, acknowledge and distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and organize the reasons and evidence logically. b. Support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant, accurate data and evidence that demonstrate an understanding of the topic or text, using credible sources. c. Use words, phrases, and clauses to create cohesion and clarify the relationships among claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence. d. Establish and maintain a formal style. e. e. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented. 6 8.WHST.2. Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/experiments, or technical processes. a. Introduce a topic clearly, previewing what is to follow; organize ideas, concepts, and information into broader categories as appropriate to achieving purpose; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., charts, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. b. Develop the topic with relevant, well chosen facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples. c. Use appropriate and varied transitions to create cohesion and clarify the relationships among ideas and concepts. d. Use precise language and domain specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. e. Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone. f. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented.
Arizona s College and Career Ready Standards Reading Writing 6 8.RH.3. Identify key steps in a text s description of a process related to history/social studies (e.g., how a bill becomes law, how interest rates are raised or lowered). 6 8.RH.4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies. 6 8.RH.5. Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, and/or causally). 6 8.RH.6. Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts). 6 8.RH.7. Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts. 6 8.RH.8. Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text. 6 8.RH.9. Analyze the relationship between a primary and secondary source on the same topic. 6 8.RH.10. By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 6 8 text complexity band independently and proficiently. 6 8.WHST.3. (See note; not applicable as a separate requirement) Note: Students narrative skills continue to grow in these grades. The Standards require that students be able to incorporate narrative elements effectively into arguments and informative/explanatory texts. In history/social studies, students must be able to incorporate narrative accounts into their analyses of individuals or events of historical import. 6 8.WHST.4. Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. Produce clear and coherent functional writing (e.g., formal letters, envelopes, procedures, labels, timelines, graphs/tables, experiments, maps, captions, charts, diagrams) in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. 6 8.WHST.5. With some guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on how well purpose and audience have been addressed. 6 8.WHST.6. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and present the relationships between information and ideas clearly and efficiently. 6 8.WHST.7. Conduct short research projects to answer a question (including a self generated question), drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions that allow for multiple avenues of exploration. 6 8.WHST.8. Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. 6 8.WHST.9. Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. 6 8.WHST.10. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for reflection and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline specific tasks, purposes, and audiences.