THOMSON * CARSWELL TORT LAW Fourth Edition Lewis N. Klar, Q.C. B.A., B.C.L., LL.M. Professor of Law University of Alberta
TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Table ofcases v xxiii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO TORT LAW 1 1. WHATISATORT? 1 2. SOURCES OFTORTLAW 2 3. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT 4 4. TORT LAW AND THE CHARTER 7 5. PURPOSES OF FAULT-BASED COMPENSATION 9 (a) Introduction 9 (b) Compensation 11 (e) Justice 13 (d) Deterrence \5 (e) Education 17 (0 Ombudsman 18 (g) Other Purposes 18 6. THE FAULT/NO-FAULT DEBATE 19 7. CONCLUSION 24 Chapter 2 TRESPASS AND INTENTIONAL INTERFERENCES WITH PERSONS, PROPERTY ANDCHATTELS 27 1. INTRODUCTION 27 2. THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT 27 3. "DIRECT" AND "INDIRECT"' 29 4. ACCIDENTAL, NEGLIGENT AND INTENTIONAL CONDUCT 32 5. VOLITION ANDCAPACITY 34 6. RELATIONSHIP WITH CRIMINAL LAW 39 (a) Introduclion 39 (b) Can Criminal Prosccutions Excludc or Suspend Civil Procecdings? 39 (e) Can Criminal Law Sanctions Affcct Tort Damagcs? 41
16. DETINUE 91 (a) Introduction 91 (b) Wrongful Detention 92 (i) Demand and Refusai 92 (e) Rcmedics 94 TABLE OF CONTENTS (d) Restitution and Compensation Under Criminal Law 43 7. ASSAULT 43 8. BATTERY 46 (a) Introduction 46 (b) Intentional Battery 46 (i) Intention 46 (ii) Directness 47 (iii) Offensiveness 48 (iv) Physical Contaci 50 (v) Burden of Proof: Fault or Wrongdoing 50 (vi) Sexual Wrongdoing 52 (e) Negligent Battery 56 9. FALSE IMPRISONMENT 58 (a) Introduction 58 (b) Intentional False Imprisonment 60 (i) Imprisonment 60 (ii) Directness 61 (iii) Imprisonment by "Agreement" 63 (iv) Knowledge of thè Confinement 65 (e) Negligent False Imprisonment 65 10. MALICIOLTS PROSECUTION 66 11. ABUSE OF PROCESS 74 12. MAINTENANCE AND CHAMPERTY 76 13. INTENTIONAL INFLICTION OF MENTAL SUFFERING: THE T()RT IN Wll.KINSON V. DOWNTON 78 (a) Introduction 78 (b) An Act or Statement 79 (e) Calculated to Produce Harm 81 (d) Harm 83 14. INVASION OF PRIVACY 84 15. TRESPASS TO CHATTELS 87 (a) Introduction 87 (b) Intentional Trespass 87 (i) Intention 87 (ii) Legai Posscssion 88 (iii) Directness 90 (iv) Damage 90 (e) Negligent Trespass 91
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi 17. CONVERSION 96 (a) Introduction 96 (b) WhoCanSue? 96 (e) Intention 98 (d) Chattels 100 (e) Types of Dealings 101 (f) Remedies 103 1 8. ACTION ON THE CASE FOR PERMANENT DAMAGE TO REVERSIONARY INTEREST 105 19. REPLEVIN 105 20. TRESPASS TO LAND 106 (a) Introduction 106 (b) Intentional Trespass 106 (i) Intention 106 (ii) Possession of Land 108 (iii) Types of Interferences 110 (iv) "Land" 113 (v) Remedies 114 (e) Negligent Trespass 115 21. REMOTENESS OFDAMAGE 116 22. PUNITIVE DAMAGES 117 Chapter 3 DEFENCES TO TRESPASS AND INTENTIONAL INTERFERENCES 123 1. INTRODUCTION 123 2. GENERAL COMMENTS 123 3. CONSENT 124 (a) Introduction 124 (b) Sports 129 (e) Medicai Treatment 131 4. SELF-DEFENCE 136 5. DEFENCE OF OTHERS 13X 6. DEFENCE OF PROPERTY 140 7. LEGAL AUTHORITY 143 8. PROVOCATICI 149 9. NECESSITY 152 Chapter 4 INTRODUCTION TO NEGLIGENCE LAW 157 1. THE PLACE OF NEGLIGENCE LAW IN TUE LAW OF TORTS 157 2. THE HISTORY OF NEGLIGENCF. LAW 158
xi i T ABLE OF CONTENTS 3. ANALYSIS OF A NEGLIGENCE ACTION 160 Chapter 5 INTRODUCTION TO DUTY OF CARE 163 1. THE PURPOSE OF THÈ DUTY CONCEPT 163 2. THE ELEMENTS OF THÈ DUTY RELATIONSHIP 165 (a) Introduction 165 (b) The Leading Cases 166 (i) Donoghue v. Stevenson: The Neighbour Principle... 166 (ii) Anns v. Merton London Borough Councii. The Two-stage Test 167 (iii) The English Courts Retreat from Anns 169 (iv) Canadian Law's Initial Enthusiasm for thè Twostage Test 171 (v) Cooper v. Hobart and Edwards v. L.S.U.C.: The Adoption of thè Three-stage Test 173 (e) A Closer Look al thè Elements: Foreseeability, Proximity, Policy 175 (i) Foreseeability 175 (ii) Proximity 179 (iii) Residuai Policy Considerations 183 3. A NOTE OF THÈ LEGAL STATUS OF THÈ UNBORN 185 Chapter 6 THE DUTY TO ASSIST OTHERS 189 1. INTRODUCTION 189 2. THE STRICT RULE 190 3. SHOULDTHERE BE A DUTY? 192 4. RELATIONSHIPS REQUIRING ASSISTANCE 196 (a) Introduction 196 (b) Relationships of Economie Benefit 196 (i) Commerciai Hosts 196 (ii) Do Social Hosts Owe a Duty? 200 (e) Relationships of Control or Supervjsion 203 (i) Introduction 203 (ii) Parent and Child 203 (iii) Tcacherand Pupil 207 (iv) Other Relationships 210 (d) Creators of Dangerous Situations 216 (e) Reliance Relationships 217 (0 Statutory Duties 220 (g) Responsibility of Occupiers 220 Chapter 7 RECOVERY OF PURELY ECONOMIC LOSSES.. 223 1. INTRODUCTION 223
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii 2. LIABILITY FOR NEGLIGENT STATEMENTS 226 (a) The Nature of thè Problem 226 (b) Hedley Byrne & Co. v. Heller & Partners Ltd 231 (e) The Special Relationship and Policy 233 (i) Introduction 233 (ii) Skill of thè Advisor 238 (iii) Skill of thè Advisee 240 (iv) Nature of thè Occasion 241 (v) Request 241 (vi) Nature of Advice 244 (d) Inaccurate or Misleading Statement 246 (e) Negligence 248 (f) Reliance 249 (g) DamageCaused by thè Reliance 250 (h) Contributory Negligence 251 (i) Pre- and Post-Contractual Negligent Misrepresentations.. 253 (j) The Employee's Duly 257 3. LIABILITY FOR NEGLIGENT PERFORMANCE OF SERVICES 259 (a) Direct Undertakings to Perforiti a Gratuitous Service 259 (b) Indirect Undertakings to Perforiti a Service 262 4. LIABILITY FOR RELATIONAL ECONOMIC LOSSES 268 (a) Economic Losses Consequent on Property Damagc Suffered by a Third Party 268 (b) Economic Losses Consequent on Personal Injurics Suffered by a Third Party 273 (i) Introduction 273 (ii) Loss of Consorlium 274 (iii) Loss of Services 277 5. LIABILITY FOR ECONOMIC LOSSES CAUSED BY DEFECTIVE PRODUCTS OR BUILDINGS 279 Chapter 8 THE DUTY OF CARE OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES 287 1. INTRODUCTION 287 2. CROWN LIABILITY 287 3. THE DUTY OF CARE OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES 291 (a) Introduction 291 (b) Express Statutory Liability 292 (e) The Negligent Statement Cascs 295 (d) Establishinga Prima bacie Duty of Care 296 (e) Policy Reasons to Limit thè Prima l'ade Duty: The Policy/Operational Dichotomy 3(X) (f) Critique of thè Policy/Operational Dichotomy 305 (g) Conclusion 311
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS (h) Legislative and Judicial Immunity 313 4. MlSFEASANCE IN A PUBLIC OFFICE 318 (a) Public Officiai 318 (b) Wrongful Conduct in thè Defendant's Capacity as a Public Officer 319 (e) Intentional Wrongdoing 321 5. CONCLUSION 324 Chapter 9 THE STANDARD OF CARE 327 1. INTRODUCTION 327 2. THE NEGLIGENCE ISSUE: THE ROLES OF JUDGE AND JURY 328 3. THE REASONABLE PERSON 333 (a) Introduction 333 (b) Intellect, Knowledge and Experience 334 (e) Physical Abilities 339 (d) Age 341 4. REASONABLE AND UNREASONABLE RISKS 345 (a) Introduction 345 (b) The "Learned Hand" Formula 345 (i) Likelihood of Injury 346 (ii) Gravity of thè Injury 347 (iii) Cosi of Avoidance 347 (e) Emergencies 349 5. GENERAL PRACTICE 352 6. BREACH OFSTATUTORY STANDARDS 355 7. DEGREES OF NEGLIGENCE 361 8. PRODUCT LIABILITY 363 (a) Introduction 363 (b) Duty of Care: To Whom is it Owed? 365 (e) Standard of Care 366 (i) Design 366 (ii) Manufacture 368 (iii) Marketing 370 (d) Problems of Proof 376 (e) Economic Losses 376 Chapter 10 PROFESSIONAL NEGLIGENCE 377 1. INTRODUCTION 377 2. CONCURRENT LIABILITY 377 3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 381
TABLE OF CONTENTS xv (a) The Standard of Care 381 (b) The Locality Rule 388 (e) Generalists and Specialists 389 (d) Beginners 391 (e) Errors of Judgment 392 4. SPECIFIC PROFESSIONAL GROUPS 393 (a) Lawyers 393 (i) The Immunity Question 393 (ii) The "Trial Within a Trial" 396 (iii) The Lawyer's Duty to Third Parties 398 (iv) TheEffectofaRetainer 401 (v) Examples of Legai Malpractice 402 (b) Doctors 405 (i) The Duty to Disclose 405 (ii) Extensions of thè Duty to Disclose 415 (iii) Wrongful Life and Wrongful Birth 418 (e) Engineers and Architects 423 (d) Other Professionals 424 Chapter 11 CAUSAL CONNECTION 427 1. INTRODUCTION 427 2. ESTABLISHING THE CAUSAL CONNECTION 429 (a) Introduction 429 (b) The "Bui For" Test 429 3. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES: ESTABLISHING CAUSE IN THÈ DIFFICULT CASE 433 (a) Athey v. Leonati: The Basic Propositions 433 (b) Making it Easier for Plaintiffs: Alternatives to thè "But For" Test 436 (e) The "Material Contribution" Test: What is it and Whcn Does is Apply? 437 (i) Inlroduction 437 (ii) The Defendant's Negligence was onc of Sevcral Necessary Causcs 438 (iii) The "But For" Test is Unworkable 439 (iv) Walker listate v. York l'indi General /-/ospitai 440 (v) Materially Increasing thè Risk of Injury: McGhee v. National Coai fìoard 441 (vi) Resitrfue Corp. r. Hanke: A Revival of McGhee'!... 447 (vii) Posl-Hanke Fall Out 448 (d) Redefining "Injury": Increasing thè Risk of Adverse Rcsults is an Injury in Itsclf 451 (e) The Failurc of thè "But For" Test in Olher Contexts 453 (i) Additional Causes 454 (ii) Alternative Causes 455
2. CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 509 (a) Contributory Negligence Defined 509 (b) Contributory Negligence at Common Law 511 (e) Contributory Negligence Legislation 512 (i) Introduction 512 (ii) Scope of thè Statutory Defence 513 (iii) Problems of Imputed Fault 517 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS (0 The Rule in Cook v. Lewis 455 4. SUMMARY 456 5. CAUSATION AND LOSSES 457 6. SUCCESSIVE ACCIDENT CASES 463 Chapter 12 REMOTENESS 467 1. INTRODUCTION 467 2. TESTS FOR PROXIMATE CAUSE 469 (a) Introduction 469 (b) The Directness Test of Re Polemis 470 (e) The Reasonable Foreseeability Test of Wagon Mound No. / 470 (d) The Scope of Foreseeability 471 (i) Hughes v. Lord Advocate The Type of Injury 471 (ii) Wagon Mound No. 2 The Possibility of Injury... 473 3. WHERE TO DRAW THÈ LINE? A QUESTION OF POLICY 474 4. SPECIFIC REMOTENESS PROBLEMS 476 (a) Recovery for Nervous Shock and Purely Economic Losses 476 (b) The "Thin Skull" Problem 486 (e) The Problem of Novus Actus Interveniens 491 (i) Introduction 491 (ii) Responsibility for thè Acts of Third Parties 492 A. Injuries Caused by Persons under One's Control and Supervision 492 B. Responsibility for Injuries Caused by Strangers 495 (iii) Exacerbation of Originai Injuries 499 A. The "Second Accident" Case 500 B. The Suicide Cases 502 C. Subscquent Medicai Treatment 503 5. THE DUTY TO RESCUERS 504 Chapter 13 DEFENCES TO THE NEGLIGENCE ACTION AND APPORTIONMENT ISSUES 509 1. INTRODUCTION 509
TABLEOFCONTENTS xvii (iv) Ruleof LastCIear Chance 518 (v) Basis of Apportionment 521 (vi) Effect of a Finding of Contributory Negligence 524 (d) Special Cases 526 (i) Children 527 (ii) Failure lo Use a Safety Device 527 3. VOLUNTARY ASSUMPTION OF RlSK 532 (a) Basis of thè Defence 532 (b) Express Agreements 535 (e) Implied Agreements 537 4. ILLEGALITY 541 (a) Introduction 541 (b) Hallv. Hebert 542 (e) Conclusion 545 5. CONTRIBUTION BETWEEN WRONGDOERS 545 (a) The Common Law 545 (i) Joint and Severa!, Concurrent Tortfeasors 545 (ii) Consequences of Joint Liability 548 (iii) No Contribution Between Wrongdoers 550 (b) Contribution Legislation 550 (i) Introduction 550 (ii) Scope of thè Contribution Provisions 551 (iii) Right to Seek Contribution 552 (iv) Obligation to Pay Contribution 554 (v) Basis of Apportionment 559 (vi) OtherMatters 560 Chapter 14 PROOF 563 1. INTRODUCTION 563 2. BURDEN OF PROOF IN GENERAL 563 3. THE MAXIM Rr.s //'.si LOQUIUR 565 (a) Introduction 565 (b) When Does "A Thing Spcak for Uscir? 567 (i) Introduction 567 (ii) The Rcquiremcnt of Control 56X (iii) The Oceurrence Wnuld Not Ordinarii) Happen Without Negligence 571 A. Fircs 572 B. Medicai malpractice 575 C. Products 575 D. Automobile accidents 577 (iv) The Cause ol'lhc Occurrence Must Not Bc Known 579 (e) The Procedural Effect of (he Maxim 581
5. LIABILITY FOR ANIMALS 639 (a) Introduction 639 (b) The Scienter Action 640 xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS (d) Conclusion 584 Chapter 15 OCCUPIERS' LIABILITY 587 1. INTRODUCTION 587 2. THECOMMON LAW 588 (a) Definition of Occupier 588 (b) Categories of Entrants 590 (i) Trespassers 591 (ii) Licensees 591 (iii) Invitees 593 (iv) Contractual Entrants 594 (e) Duties of Occupiers 596 (i) Duties Owed to Trespassers 596 (ii) Duties Owed to Licensees 599 (iii) Duties Owed to Invitees 601 (iv) Duties Owed to Contractual Entrants 602 3. OCCUPIERS' LIABILITY LEGISLATION 603 (a) Definition of Occupier 603 (b) Common Duty of Care 606 (e) Acceptance of Risks 611 (d) Restrictive Duties 614 (e) Miscellaneous Provisions 616 Chapter 16 STRICT LIABILITY 619 1. INTRODUCTION 619 2. THE PRINCIPLE OF RYIANDS V. FI.ETCHER 620 (a) Introduction 620 (b) Non-Natural Use 622 (e) Escape 626 (d) Anything Likely to Do Mischief 628 (e) Type of Compensable Damage 629 (0 Remoteness 629 3. DEFENCES 630 (a) Consent 630 (b) Act of God, of thè Plaintiff or of Strangers 631 (e) Statutory Authority 633 4. LIABILITY FOR FIRES 635 (a) Introduction 635 (b) Special Action on thè Case 636 (e) Ryiands v. Fletcher 637 (d) The Fires Prevention (Metropolis) Act, 1774 638
TABLE OF CONTENTS xix (e) Cattle Trespass 644 (d) The Rule in Searle v. Wallbank 644 6. VICARIOUS LIABILITY 645 (a) Introduction 645 (b) Who is an Employee? 649 (e) Course of Employment 653 (d) Vicarious Liability for Sexual and Physical Abuse: The Supreme Court of Canada's "Strong Connection Test"... 656 (e) The "Strong Connection Test" in Practice 659 (f) Vicarious Liability for "Independent Contractors" 662 (g) Non-delegable Duties 662 (h) Statutory Vicarious Liability 666 Chapter 17 BUSINESS TORTS 667 1. INTRODUCTION 667 2. DECEIT 668 (a) Introduction 668 (b) Elements of thè Tort 669 (i) False Representation or Statement 669 (ii) Knowledge 674 (iii) Intention to Deceive 674 (iv) Material Inducement Causing Damage 675 (e) Assessment of Damage 677 3. INTERFERENCE WITH CONTRACTUAL RELATIONS 679 (a) Introduction 679 (b) Inducing Breach of Contract by Dircct Interference 679 (i) Introduction 679 (ii) The Existence of a Contract 680 (iii) Intention 681 (iv) Knowledge 684 (v) Conduct Inducing Breach 685 (vi) Damage 687 (vii) Justification 688 (e) Procuring Breach of Contract by Indirect Means 690 (d) Interferenccs vvith Contractual Rclations not Involving Breach 694 4. INTIMIDATION 696 (a) Introduction 696 (b) Threat 696 (e) Unlawful Act 697 (d) Submission to Threat 699 (e) Intention 699 5. CONSPIRACY 7(X) (a) Introduction 700 (b) Agreement and Execution 702
xx TABLE OF CONTENTS (c) Conspiracy to Injure 702 (d) Conspiracy to Use Unlawful Means 705 (e) Damage 708 6. INTERFERENCE WITH ECONOMIC INTERESTS BY UNLAWFUL MEANS 709 7. SECONDARY PICKETING 713 Chapter 18 NUISANCE 715 1. INTRODUCTION 715 2. PUBLIC NUISANCE 715 (a) Introduction 715 (b) Types of Activities 716 (i) What is Public? 717 (ii) What is a Nuisance? 717 (e) The Negligence Requirement 720 (d) The Special Damages Requirement 721 3. PRIVATE NUISANCE 723 (a) Introduction 723 (b) Deliberate and Continuing Nuisances 726 (e) Continuing or Adopting a Nuisance 732 (d) Accident Compensation and Loss Distribution 734 (e) The Defence of Statutory Authority 736 (f) Other Defences 740 (i) Prescription 740 (ii) Acquiescence 740 (iii) Contributory Negligence 741 (iv) Acts of Normal Husbandry 741 (v) Statutory Immunity 742 (g) Remedies 742 Chapter 19 DEFAMATION 745 1. INTRODUCTION 745 2. SOURCES OF DEFAMATION LAW 746 3. THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN LIBEL AND SLANDER 747 4. ELEMENTS OF THÈ PLAINTIFF'S CASE 749 (a) What is Defamatory? 749 (b) Reference to thè Plaintiff 756 (e) Publication 759 5. DEFENCES 763 (a) Justification 763 (b) Absolute Privilege 765 (e) Qualified Privilege 770 (i) Protection of One's Own Interests 772
TABLE OF CONTENTS xxi (ii) Protection ofanother's Intcrest 773 (iii) Protection of Common Interests 774 (iv) Protection of thè Public Interest 775 (d) Exceeding thè Privilege and Malice 784 (e) FairComment 787 (i) Comment and Fact 788 (ii) Public Interest 790 (iii) Fairness 790 (iv) Malice 793 (f) Consent 794 6. REMEDIES 794 7. SLANDER OF GOODS 798 8. CONCURRENT ACTIONS IN DEFAMATION AND NEGLIGENCE... 800 Index 805