LATIN AMERICA Chapter 23
Overview! Once we look at the commonalities of the region we will look at four countries: Mexico, Brazil, the largest; Argentina, the most European, and Cuba, the most radical.! These countries are similar to other countries that fought for their independence and have struggled economically and technologically.
Diversity Today! There are 33 countries in Latin America with about half a billion people. 1 of 3 is Brazilian. 1 of 5 is Mexican.! Most speak Spanish, Brazil speaks Portuguese. There are some native Indian languages still spoken in various parts of Latin America.! Most of Latin America is Catholic, close to 90%! There is a push/pull movement with the population.
Diversity Today! The population is being pulled to the cities for the lure of jobs.! They are being pushed out of the county side as agriculture work is diminishing.! By 2000, close to 3 of 4 people lived in the cities.! Brazil opened up large tract of land in the Amazon Basin to bring in people. This has created several problems.
Diversity Today! Life expectancy is 69 years. US is 77! Literacy rate for females is 85%. US is 99%! GNP per capita is $3,940. US is $29,080.! Latin American countries are in the middle. Lower than Western Europe and the United States, but higher than Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.! Latin America compares with Eastern Europe.
Technology, Industrialization, Elites! In the late 19 th century Latin America began to industrialize with investments from overseas. Britain was first, then after WWI the United States was the main investor in the region.! These investments paid for railways, mining, agriculture and ocean shipping to name a few.! One example was the closing of the pampas and turning the gauchos into hired hands.
Technology, Industrialization, Elites! The investments were made with profits in mind.! Most of the investments were in primary production. This is farming and mining. They were not looking for finished goods.! The Creole elites treated their countries for their own benefit. Control and patronage mattered. Money was not the main factor.! Some people felt that democracy was barbaric and that way of the elites was better.
Technology, Industrialization, Elites! Two groups were in conflict of the caudillos rule and that was businessmen and the army.! The businessmen wanted a stable government that would allow for growth, industrialization, better education and more independence from foreign investors.! Immigrants from Italy brought the idea of labor unions to Latin America and industrial development.
Technology, Industrialization, Elites! The other group was the army, most notable the junior officers. They were from middle-class urban families that have been exposed to modern technology, stable government. They also saw the importance of education.! In many areas these groups worked together to create reforms and were successful to a point. They failed in one area-land reform.
Technology, Industrialization, Elites! The reformers were urban people with no sympathy to the rural peasants.! In 1896 the revolt in Brazil raised the question can the changes that are happening in the economics and industry reach the peasants?
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! 1910 saw an uprising against the dictator Porfirio Diaz. Under Diaz, Mexico had shown signs of advancement. They had mining, oil drilling, railways, and an increase in raw agricultural products.! The middle class elites had prospered. The urban working class and the rural peasant fared worse.! 95% of rural peasants owned no land.! 50% of Mexico was owned by foreign investors and 200 families.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! Several haciendas were over 11 million acres and sat idle. This was not well received.! Voting was limited. There was no plan of succession. Diaz continued to run for president. He jailed the challenger. Diaz wins but the rebellion had begun.! Diaz resigns and flees to Paris. Mexico enters into a civil war. Regional leaders fighting for control.! Many of the leaders were mestizos (people of mixed race and culture).
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! The two most radical meszito leaders were Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. They advocated significant land reform. They attracted mixed groups of followers.! 1911, Zapata launched his Plan of Ayala, which called for the return of land to Indian pueblos.! His view was it was better to die on one s feet than to live on one s knees.! The revolution was becoming more radical and agrarian.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! With Diaz gone, Madero became president. He was later removed and assassinated. Next up was General Huerta. He tried to re-create the government of Diaz.! General Huerta was opposed by all the other leaders including the United States. Huerta was forced out in 1914. Carranza installed himself as provisional president, forcing out Villa and Zapata.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! Carranza convened a constituent assembly in 1917 to write a constitution. The constitution was to promise land reform and impose restrictions on foreign economic control.! The new constitution offered many protections for the Mexican worker and placed severe restrictions on the church. The constitution was also against foreigners.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! Carranza did not last long. He was deposed by Obregon, his military leader in 1920.! Obregon s first act was to distribute 3 million acres of land to the peasants. The act was seen as a good will gesture. Unfortunately there was no technical assistance offered, so productivity did not increase.! Obregon did include new groups in the government. This was good.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! Obregon was a patron of the arts. There were several artists that showed the struggle for all Mexicans.! Warfare did continue. Mostly between the factions and between the state and church.! Obregon was assassinated in 1924. Calles became president. Calles and the rest of the caudillos viewed the church as a rival for power.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! In the 1920 s the clericals went on strike, not performing services. The peasants sided with the church. The War of the Cristeros was the result and the government backed down. Calles and the government became more sensitive to the church.! 1928 saw the creation of the National Revolutionary Party which later became the Party of Institutionalized Revolution (PRI). This was a comprehensive party.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! Under President Cardenas, the PRI redistributed 45 million acres of land. He started a process that would redistribute 253 million acres by 1984.! Cardenas nationalized the oil industry in 1938.! Cardenas did offer compensation to the foreign investors. The United States did not intervene.! 1940 Cardenas retired from presidential politics. This helped stabilize the structure.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920! The PRI envisioned a one party system that would include all major interest groups. The contest for power would take place within the group.! Can one party be the answer to everyone?
Post-Revolutionary Mexico! The Cardenas presidency was the last to attempt reforms on a nationwide scale.! 1946 saw Aleman become president and large business and agricultural groups have been in power ever since. By 1997 the PRI did lose control of the legislature.! 1958 women were given the right to vote.! Mexican economy was growing nicely due to oil. The price drops, the economy suffers.
Post-Revolutionary Mexico! Mexico turned to the US and the IMF for loans.! In 1994, NAFTA was enacted that was designed to create a free trade zone between Mexico, United States and Canada.! Mexico was left to compete against the industrialization of the US. The US was to compete against the low wages of the Mexican worker.! The growth has been from maquiladoras (assembly plants) The material is shipped to Mexico, assembled and then sent back to the US and elsewhere.
Ethnic Culture and Power! Maya Indians rose in armed conflict in 1994 leaving 45 dead. This incident questioned how the revolution united all people.! The Indians were very poor and were left out of the riches that the area produces. These Indians had resisted the Spanish. This was not the first time the Indians started to protest. The Indian Congress was organized in 1974. The Forces of National Liberation were clandestine.
Ethnic Culture and Power! The leader of the revolt in 1994 was Marcos.! The Maya s called themselves Zapatistas in honor of Zapata.! This revolt has created many tensions thorougout Mexico.
Markets, Military and Democracy! During the 1920 s the foreign exchange earnings of most countries was based on the export of raw materials. Usually, it was just one or two products.! The depression caused the market to drop 80%.! Argentina started a new economic policy called import substituting industrialization. ISI was a policy to diversify productivity and become more internally self-sufficient.
Markets, Military and Democracy! After WWII, some economies grew very well. Brazil s industry was at 9% and agriculture was at 4%. Venezuela had oil at 8.5% and agriculture at 4%.! The ISI was not working. Latin America was not becoming self-sufficient. The profits were not reaching the rural workers.! Workers and peasants protested. Governments responded with violence.
Markets, Military and Democracy! The military was used to intervene and restore order. By their social background and training, the military favored technological modernization and social order.! When interest groups sought modernization they did not think about the needs of the workers and peasants. The workers and peasants did not think about the costs associated with their demands.
Brazil! 1930 saw a military revolution were Getulio Vargas came into power.! The economy suffered with the crash of the coffee market. Vargas strengthened the economy at the states expense. There were several revolts that Vargas stopped.! Estado Novo, the new state was the slogan for Vargas.
Brazil! Vargas had Brazil move into other industries. He started developing mining, oil, steel, chemicals, electricity, cars and airplanes.! Vargas was getting money from both the US and Germany when they were ready for WWII.! Business leaders and the military supported Vargas. He knew that he needed the urban labor behind him. He created the Ministry of Labor.
Brazil! Vargas organized the Brazilian Labor Party. Created a minimum wage, 48 hr work week, vacations, child care among others. The problem was that the reforms did not reach the peasants.! The army was afraid of Vargas and had him deposed in 1945. New constitution enacted, elections every five years. Literacy test required for voting. Literacy increases.! Women suffrage in 1932.
Brazil! In 1950 Vargas was re-elected with the support of many different interest groups. This was the problem. He could not make them all happy. Some wanted ties with the US others did not. Some wanted higher wages, others wanted them capped. In 1954, Vargas was unable to deal with the issues and killed himself.! 1961 saw a former Vargas man, Goulart take over. He tried to play the game, but it was not working.
Brazil! Goulart moved to the left. He nationalized the oil industry, allowed the Communist party.! The army deposed him and remained in power for the next 20 years.! By 1968 Brazil was in the midst of recovery. Oil was the key to the economic increase.! The rich did very well and the poor not so well.! Debt and inflation skyrocketed.
Brazil! Brazil returned to civilian rule and it do provide the results. Corruption was widespread. Cardoso tried globalization and it worked to some degree. Inflation and unemployment dropped, but in 1999 the currency was devalued and the economy fell. The gap between wealthy and poor was large. Cardoso said we are not underdeveloped, we are unjust.
Argentina! 1914 60% of Buenos Aires population was foreign born. Wheat and beef dominated the economy. Industry was small and growing.! The depression hit Argentina hard. With food exports falling, Argentina felt the depression more than any other Latin America country.! Politics had been split between the urban industrialists and the rich landlords.
Argentina! A military coup in 1930 brought forth the ICI plan. Industry was on the rise. During the war, industry grew. Each time industry grew the estate owners became more suspect.! 1943 saw another coup with Juan Peron taking office. He based his power on the urban working class. Peron was jailed and workers in Argentina united for his release.! Peron campaigned with the descamisados.
Argentina! With Peron in office he set forth to bring the country together. He promoted populism and nationalism. He also asked the nation to serve the worker.! Peron nationalized foreign owned companies. Paid off debts, gave concessions to the workers and crushed independent labor unions.! His wife, Evita was just as controversial. She related to the masses. Won equal rights for women, including the vote in 1947.
Argentina! Evita s death in 1952 from cancer hurt Peron. The clashes of interest groups grew and forced Peron out of office in 1955. He remained very popular and won election in 1973.! Peron died in 1974, his new wife took over till she was ousted in a military coup in 1976.! The military government was supported by the United States.
Argentina! People began disappearing. Some 10,000. In the Plaza de Mayo, mothers would gather with pictures of their missing family members. US President Carter ended military funding and the disappearances dropped off. Reagan brought back the funding and the disappearances rose.! 1983 the military fell. Economy was in the tank. Mass protests, defeated by the British in the Falklands, they are still in recovery.
US Policies in Latin America! Latin America has kept the US policies for the region on the front burner. The Monroe Doctrine in 1832 declared the Americas off limits for the militaries of Europe. Britain agreed.! It was not the Europeans that intervened in Latin America, it was the United States.! The Texas war of independence, Mexican-American war, Spanish-American war. The US was busy in the region.
US Policies in Latin America! 1903, had Panama secede from Columbia and then built the Panama Canal.! The US spent close to 40% of all foreign investment in Latin America.! Between 1898 and 1934 the US sent troops to Latin America more than 30 times.! T. Roosevelt proclaimed that the US was a police power in the internal affairs of Latin America.
US Policies in Latin America! The Roosevelt Corollary was used to justify military intervention to collect debts.! Good neighbor policy in 1933. This limited US intervention in Latin America. Put to the test in 1938 with Mexican president Cardenas.! After WWII, the US and Latin America began to normalize relations. Organization of American States was the first step.
Nicaragua! In 1909, the US urged revolt in the country and sent Marines that stayed till 1933.! One Nicaraguan officer, Sandino, rejected American hegemony and fought a guerilla war.! Sandino was deceived and killed by officers under Somoza Garcia.! Garcia took over the government with the backing of the US.
Nicaragua! Conditions under Somoza were horrible, a movement led by students started. The movement called themselves the Sandinista Front for National Liberation named after Sandino.! In 1979 the Sandinistas gained control. When all was said and done some 50,000 were killed.! Reagan overturned the policies put in place by Carter. The US backed a group called the contras.
Nicaragua! The contras were supplied and trained by the CIA. The CIA had funds cut by Congress but then funneled money to the contras by selling arms to Iran.! From 1981 to 1990 some 60,000 were killed. Since 1990 the country has had democratically elected governments and relations with the US has normalized.
Guatemala! If a Latin American country was against the US they were labeled communists.! A free, open election elected Colonel Arbenz in 1951. One of his first acts was to nationalize 400,000 acres of the United Fruit Company. UFC was owned by US citizens.! Arbenz wanted to free his country from reliance on others. This did not go over to well. He sought military assistance from the US, they said no.
Guatemala! Arbenz went to Poland, then being supplied by the Russians.! An armed group outfitted by the US toppled the Arbenz government. Carlos Armas took over.! Armas undid the nationalization that Arbenz did. Armas jailed and oppressed those who disagreed with him. Armas was assassinated in 57.! Civil war followed. 100,000 died. Resolution was reached in the 90 s. US apologized for their support of certain groups during the civil war.
Chile! Eduardo Frei lead Chile from 1964 to 1970. He had good relations with the US, offered compensation to nationalized companies.! In 1970 the moved to a more radical stance and elected Salvador Allende, this was opposed by the US and other transnational companies.! Allende nationalized mining interests, increased salaries and other social programs.
Chile! Allende found this difficult. To increase the programs, one must find a way to pay for it. The US sharply cut their aid to the country.! The CIA wanted to overthrow Allende. They supported the opposition.! The middle class and women urged the military to act. They did and killed Allende in 1973.! General Pinochet headed the new government and killed or detained the supporters of Allende.
Chile! Pinochet was feared and hated but did restore the economy. In 1988, the opposition won and the country returned to democracy.! Pinochet was tried for crimes and was ordered to Spain. Pinochet was in Britain at the time and Britain would not send him to Spain due to health but did send him back to Chile.
Panama! 1878 a French company with the agreement of Colombia, began to build a canal across Panama. The US agreed to pay the fee but Colombia refused. In 1903 the US urged a revolt for Panama independence and used warships to block the Colombian army from reaching the battle. 12 days later the US had an agreement for the canal.
Panama! In 1989, President General Noriega suspended an election and was charged with drug trafficking by the US. Four days of fighting resulted in several hundred deaths and property damage, democracy was resulted.! In 1977, President Carter reached an agreement to give back the canal in 2000. The canal is operated by the Panamanians.
Cuba! In 1952 Fidel Castro sued that Batista s government was unconstitutional. His case was tossed out and he headed to the mountains.! July 26, 1953 Castro attacked the Moncada and was defeated. While in prison, he created a six point plan.! Castro claimed that funding was available by ending graft and scaling military expenditures.
Cuba! 1959 Castro captured Havana and declared a new government for Cuba.! Castro reached out the US first but then turned to the Soviet Union.! In 1961 Castro announced his allegiance to Marxism-Leninism. From that time forward Cuba was reliant upon the Soviets.! He devoted money and energies to health, education and cultural activities.
Cuba! Life expectancy increased, doctors increased, nurses increased, literacy rates increased, books published increased. Living conditions increased. One problem is the elites fled for the US.! Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis happened between Cuba and the US.! Cuba did send troops overseas in conflicts in Ethiopia and Angola.
Cuba! Many extol the achievements of the revolution, others argue that it did not reach the goals that were set forth.! The US trade embargo hurt Cuba more than they would like to admit. The collapse of the Soviet Union cost Cuba billions of dollars in aid. Production has dropped but by the late 1990 s there are signs of recovery.
Current Issues and Trends! By 2000 most countries in Latin America were democratic.! Most countries are increasing industry using oil has the base. They are suspect to the World Bank and the IMF. The institutions loan money with strings attached.! NAFTA was created in 1994. CAFTA was created in 2004.! Drugs are problem for many countries in the region.
Current Issues and Trends! Another problem for cities in the region is pollution, pesticide, insectidice use.! Trans-Amazon highway opened up the Amazon rainforest. Soil is unsuitable for agriculture. People stayed in the area.! People have criticized Brazil for cutting the forest, they respond that the US cut down their forests for development. Brazil asks for assistance to stop the cutting.
Current Issues and Trends! The conflict with the Amerindians and the Europeans has been going on for a long time.! Rigoberta Menchu wrote a book about the plight of Amerindians in Guatemala. An anthropologist named David Stoll challenged her reports.! The church has played a large role in the lives of many. 1980 Archbishop Romero was assassinated. He stated that the church can be justified in insurrection.
Current Issues and Trends! Church focused on the poor.! 1970 s saw liberation theology took hold. This identified with the teachings of Jesus and his work with the poor. The church would challenge local leaders to make changes.! Evangelical Protestantism is gaining ground in Latin America.
Current Issues and Trends! Exploding growth in cities has created slums. The people squat and build homes out of whatever they can find.! Finding jobs has become a do-it-yourself project.