Greening International Jurisprudence

Greening International Jurisprudence Environmental NGOs before International Courts, Tribunals, and Compliance Committees By Cathrin Zengerling M A R T I N U S NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS LEIDEN. BOSTON 2013

Contents Series Editor's Preface Acknowledgments List of Abbreviations Table of International Instruments xv xvii xix xxvii Introduction 1 I. Enforcement Deficit of Environmental Law 2 II. Global Environmental Governance and Sustainable Development 4 III. Proliferation of International Judicial and Quasi-Judicial Institutions 9 TV. Deliberation and Democratic Global Governance 11 V. Structure of the Analysis 13 1. ENGOs, Environmental Problems, International Law, and Politics 17 I. ENGOs and Environmental Problems 18 II. ENGOs in International Political Commitments 23 A. Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 23 B. Malmo Ministerial Declaration 25 C. UNEP Montevideo Programmes 26 D. Aarhus Convention and Almaty Guidelines 26 III. Relevance, Definition, and Legal Status of NGOs in International Law 28 A. Relevance of NGOs in the International Arena 29 B. Definition of,ngos under International Law 30 C. Legal Status of NGOs under International Law 32 1. Legal Personality 33 2. Rights and Duties 35 IV. Legitimacy and Accountability 36 V. Conclusions 40 2; Multilevel Enforcement of International Environmental Law 43 I. International Environmental Law 43 A. Sources 44 B. Addressees and Content of MEAs 46 II. National Courts Germany and the United States 48 A. Germany 51

viii Contents B. United States 54 C. Opportunities and Constraints 58 1. Gaps of Judicial Control in Germany 58 2. Gaps of Judicial Control in the United States 59 III. European Court of Justice 60 A. Mixed Multilateral Environmental Agreements 61 B. ECJ and International Environmental Law 62 C. Access to the European Court of Justice 63 1. Procedures 63 2. Statistics 64 3. Environmental NGOs at the ECJ 65 D. Environmental Case Law 67 1. Application of MEAs and Legislation Implementing MEAs 67 2. ECJ on Competing Jurisdictions 71 E. Opportunities and Constraints 74 IV. International Courts, Arbitral Tribunals, and Compliance Committees 77 A. Cases for the International Level 77 B. Judicial Dispute Settlement, Arbitration, and Compliance Control 79 1. Judicial Dispute Settlement 79 2. Arbitration 81 3. Compliance Control 82 C. Relationship between Dispute Settlement and Compliance Control 85 D. Compliance, Implementation, Enforcement, and Effectiveness... 87 E. Multilevel and Cross-Fragment Relations 89 V. Conclusions 91 3. Regional International Judicial and Quasi-Judicial Bodies 93 I. Judicial Dispute Settlement Regional Human Rights Courts 93 A Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, and Institutional Arrangements 95 1. European Court of Human Rights 95 2. Inter-American Court of Human Rights 96 3. African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights 98 B. Access to the Human Rights Courts 99 1. European Court of Human Rights 99 2. Inter-American Court of Human Rights 100 3. African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights 102 C. Environmental Case Law 103 1. European Court of Human Rights 104

Contents ix 2. Inter-American Court and Commission of Human Rights 109 3. African Court and Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights 112 D. Evaluation 114 1. Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, and Institutional Arrangements.. 114 2. Access 115 3. Environmental Case Law 117 a. European Court of Human Rights 117 b. Inter-American Court and Commission of Human Rights... 119 c. African Court and Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights 120 E. Conclusions and Recommendations 123 II. Arbitration 125 A. North American Free Trade Agreement 125 B. Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement 127 III. Compliance Committee of the Aarhus Convention 128 A. Function and Scope of Review 129 B. Institutional Arrangements 131 C. Access 132 D. Compliance Issues 133 1. Green Salvation Environmental Information Kazakhstan.. 135 2. ClientEarth and Others Costs of Access to Justice UK 136 3. ClientEarth Standing for NGOs at ECJ EU 137 E. Evaluation 139 1. Function and Scope of Review 139 2. Institutional Arrangements 140 3. Excursion: Compliance Review and Synergies under Global MEAs 142 4. Access 145 5. Compliance Issues 146 F. Conclusions and Recommendations 149 IV. Other Compliance Review Bodies 152 A. National Contact Points under OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 152 1. Scope of Review and Institutional Arrangements 153 2. Access 155 3. Environmental Cases 156 a. Oxfam Canada vs. First Quantum Mining 156 b. Survival International vs. Vedanta Resources ptc 157 c. Climate Change Cases 159

X Contents 4. Evaluation 160 5. Conclusion and Recommendations 162 B. Commission for Environmental Cooperation under NAAEC 166 V. Conclusions 167 4. Universal International Judicial and Quasi-Judicial Bodies 171 I. Judicial Dispute Settlement 171 A. International Court of Justice 171 1. Jurisdiction and Applicable Law 172 2. Institutional Arrangements 173 3. Access to the Court 174 a. No Access to Contentious Cases 174 b. Limited Access to Advisory Proceedings 176 c. INGOs in Practice Direction 178 d. Indirect Access 179 4. Environmental Case Law 179 a. Corfu Channel and Barcelona Traction 180 b. Nuclear Tests 180 c. Nuclear Weapons 181 d. Gabcikovo-Nagymaros 182 e. Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay 183 f. Herbicide Spraying and Whaling 187 5. Evaluation 188 a. Jurisdiction and Institutional Arrangements 188 b. Access 189 c. Environmental Case Law 191 6. Conclusions and Recommendations 193 B. WTO Dispute Settlement System 194 1. Jurisdiction and Applicable Law 195 2. Institutional Arrangements 197 3. Access 198 a. No Direct Access 198 b. Amici Curiae 199 c. Experts 201 4. Environmental Case Law 201 a. Tuna-Dolphin 202 b. Reformulated Gasoline 203 c. Beef Hormones 203 d. Asbestos 204 e. Shrimp-Turtle 204

Contents xi f. Biotech Products 206 g. Seal Products 207 5. Evaluation 207 a. Legitimacy 207 b. Jurisdiction and Applicable Law 210 i. WTO Cases and Conflict between Substantive Applicable Law 210 ii. Interpretation of WTO Law 213 c. Institutional Arrangements 213 d. Access 214 i. Direct Access 214 ii. Amici Curiae 216 iii. Experts 219 e. Environmental Case Law 219 i. Article XX GATT and Chapeau 220 ii. Risk Assessment 221 6. Conclusions and Recommendations 222 a. Accountability and NGO Participation 222 b. Balance Trade and Environmental Protection Interests 222 c. Widen NGO Access 224 C. International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 226 1. Jurisdiction and Applicable Law 226 2. Institutional Arrangements 228 3. Access to the ITLOS 230 a. Direct Access for Intergovernmental Organizations 230 b. Direct Access for Non-State Entities 231 c. Amici Curiae 232 d. Experts 233 4. Environmental Case Law 234 a. Prompt Release and IUU Fishing 234 b. Provisional Measures to Protect the Marine Environment 237 c. Activities in the International Seabed Area 239 i. Background 239 ii. Procedure and Participation 240 iii. Advisory Opinion 241 5. Evaluation 244 a. Jurisdiction and Applicable Law 244 b. Institutional Arrangements and Access to the Tribunal 245 c. Environmental Case Law 247 6. Conclusions and Recommendations 251

xii Contents II. Arbitration 252 A Permanent Court of Arbitration 253 1. Jurisdiction and Applicable Law 253 2. Environmental Rules 254 3. Access 255 4. Environmental Case Law 256 5. Evaluation 257 a. Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, and Environmental Rules 258 b. Access 258 c. Environmental Case Law 259 6. Conclusions and Recommendations 259 B. International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes 261 1. Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, and Special Rules 262 2. Access 263 a. Private Investors and States 263 b. Amici Curiae in ICSID Case Law 264 c. Amici Curiae in ICSID Arbitration Rules 265 3. Environmental Case Law 267 a. Metalclad/Mexico 268 b. Tecmed/Mexico 269 c. Biwater/Tanzania 270 d. Vattenfall/Germany 270 4. Evaluation 271 a. Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, and Special Rules 271 b. Access 272 c. Environmental Case Law 273 i. Metalclad and Tecmed/Mexico 274 ii. Vattenfall/Germany 275 5. Conclusions and Recommendations 276 C. International Court of Environmental Arbitration and Conciliation 279 III. Compliance Committee of the Kyoto Protocol 282 A. Function and Scope of Review 283 B. Institutional Arrangements 285 C. Access 287 D. Questions of Implementation 289 1. Facilitative Branch 289 2. Enforcement Branch 290 a. Greece 290 b. Canada 292 c. Croatia 293

Contents xiii E. Evaluation 294 1. Function and Scope of Review 294 2. Institutional Arrangements 296 3. Access 297 4 Questions of Implementation 298 F. Conclusions and Recommendations 299 IV. A New World Environment Court 302 A. Lack of Political Will 302 B. Initiatives for an International Environmental Court 303 1. International Court of the Environment Foundation (ICEF) 304 2. International Court for the Environment (ICE) Coalition 306 3. UNU/IAS Report on International Sustainable Development Governance 306 4. Climate Legacy Initiative of Vermont Law School 307 C. The Case for a New World Environment Court 308 1. Need for a World Environment Court 308 2. Forum Shopping and Fragmentation 311 3. Legitimacy 312 D. Evaluation and Author's Own Proposals 312 1. Jurisdiction and Applicable Law 313 2. Institutional Arrangements 314 a. PC A and ICEAC 314 b. Environmental Chamber of ICJ 315 c. International Court for the Environment 316 d. World Environment Organization and World Environment Court 316 e. Role of Compliance Committees under MEAs 317 3. Access 318 a. Advisory Opinions 319 b. Direct Actions 319 c. Infringement, Preliminary Ruling, and Enforcement Procedure 321 d. Amici Curiae, Experts, and Transparency 322 4. Consequences and Remedies 322 E. Conclusions 322 V. Conclusions 324 5. Conclusions and Theses 327 I. Environmental NGOs as High Potentials 329 II. Need for Clear Political Commitment 331 III. No Legal Constraints 332

xiv Contents IV. International Environmental Law Is Justiciable 333 V. Further Regionalize or Globalize Aarhus 333 VI. Gaps in National Judicial Review 334 VII. Constraints and Opportunities of the ECJ 335 VIII. Cases for the International Level 336 IX. Differentiated View on International Law Enforcement Procedures 337 X. Regional versus Universal 338 XI. More Communication to Further Coherence of International Legal Order 338 XII. Human Rights Courts and Environmental Protection 339 XIII. NGOs versus Private Companies under the OECD Guidelines 341 XIV. Deficits of Universal International Judicial Dispute Settlement Bodies 342 XV. ICJ Limited Chances and Missed Opportunities 343 XVI. WTO The In-Built Bias, Lack of Transparency and Access 343 XVII. ITLOS Prompt Release of IUU Fishing Fleets and Lack of Access 344 XVIII. Limit the Influence of International Arbitral Tribunals 346 XIX. Strengthen Compliance Committees under MEAs 346 XX. A New World Environment Court 348 Appendix: Synthesis Chart 351 Bibliography 353 Index 367