A Comparative Analysis of International Educational Cooperation in China in the 1980s and in Cambodia in the 1990s By Phirom Leng OISE-Tsinghua Conference Beijing, May 9-10
Outline Study s Purpose Theoretical Framework & Methodology An overview of Collaborative Programs in Both Countries The Mutuality Issues in higher education in both countries during those periods
Study s Purpose: To make a comparative analysis of the power dynamics in Chinese higher education in the 1980s and in Cambodian higher education in the 1990s.
Why compare these two countries during those periods? China in the 1980s - Was recovering from the cultural revolution (1966-1976) - Made economic reforms in 1978, based on the four modernizations plan: Agriculture, industry, national defense and science and technology. Cambodia in the 1990s - Was recovering from two decades of civil war and international isolation (1970s and 1980s) - Began a triple transition process: 1. From a centrally-planned economy to a free market one 2. From war to peace 3. From authoritarianism to democracy Important role of higher education in both countries
Theoretical Framework Mutuality (Galtung, 1975, 1980; Held, 2003, 2010) Equity Autonomy The aims and forms of international programs between the North and the South are mutually reached Participants from the North and the South are willing to learn about and show respect for each other s culture, values, systems of knowledge and belief system Solidarity - Participants in the South are connected with one another, and - They also gain support from their institution and other agencies Participation Participants in the South are fully involved in all activities and contribute to knowledge production on an equal basis
Methodology A qualitative research methodology Primary and secondary sources. Primary data was collected through interviews** and documents: **In the Chinese case, interviews were mainly conducted with Chinese and Canadian participants in the Canada-China Academic collaboration. In the Cambodian case, interviews were conducted some Cambodia faculty and administrators participating in French- Cambodian collaboration.
An Overview of International Collaboration Programs Bilateral Aid Agencies China in the 1980s Canada was the only country to offer China large scale assistance: CDN $250 million (Grants) from 1983 to 2001 The strategic concept of multiplication of contacts at the thinking level University partnership programs: Two examples 1 Canada-China Management Education Program (CCMEP) 2 Canada-China University Linkage Program (CCULP) Cambodia in the 1990s France was the only country willing to offer large-scale assistance to Cambodian HEIs in a wide range of knowledge areas. [main focus on sciences] (1993-2013: US $364 in all areas, including education) French educational assistance was coordinated by the AUF (Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie): French has to be used as the medium of instruction.
Bilateral Aid Agencies (Cont.) China in the 1980s - Other countries (France, Japan, the US, West Germany, Britain, etc.) offered small scale assistance. - The assistance took the forms of exchange programs, scholarships, joint research, etc. Cambodia in the 1990s - Other countries (the US, Britain, Australia, Japan, etc.) offered small scale assistance in particular areas of knowledge. [language training, teacher training, etc.] For example: - USAID Projects: University of Management & the Georgetown University Management Education Development Project and the University of San Francisco Law Education Project: - Focused on teaching and curriculum development
Reflection on Bilateral Collaboration Western countries had strong economic interest in China. Example: China became Canada s fifth largest trading partner by the early 1980s. In comparison, those developed countries had limited economic interest in Cambodia. France had colonial ties with Cambodia, so its support was mainly related to French role and responsibility as a former colonizer and also related to the promotion of French language and culture in Cambodia. The US was more interested in influencing ideologies in Cambodia, rather than helping improve its HE system.
Multilateral Aid Agencies China in the 1980s - The World Bank project began in 1980. - China persuaded the Bank to fund its higher education ($1.234 Billion) in the form of loans and credits - The WB projects covered a wide rage of fields and were more oriented to the acquisition of equipment, - Other international organizations (UNESCO, UNDP, etc.) also had projects with Chinese universities: (relatively small in scale, however) Cambodia in the 1990s - All of assistance from multilateral agencies (World Bank, UNESCO, etc.) went to basic education. Two reasons: It was based on the Human Capital theory: Return on investment in basic education is higher than post-secondary education The Bank also argued that Cambodia did not have enough human resources to implement its higher education projects.
Findings related to the power dynamics 1. Equity: aims and forms of the partnerships are mutually reached China in the 1980s There was equity in Chinese higher education. For example: In CCMEP, many Chinese delegates travelled to Canada to choose Canadian professors whom they thought were most appropriate to work in China In the WB projects, Chinese universities were allowed to select foreign specialists in areas they considered vital for curricular development and research. Cambodia in the 1990s - There was limited equity in most international educational programs in Cambodia. - Most programs were designed by foreign experts. French was the medium of instruction at many universities. Only AUF was very demanding
Four Factors Determining the Equity Aspect in Both Countries 1. Country size (including resources & international image) China: a large country, rich natural resources, no international debt & good image at the international level. Cambodia: small country, international debt & heavily dependent on foreign assistance 2. Human Resources China: Still had a lot of educated people despite the tragedy of the cultural revolution Cambodia: more than 80% of educated people were killed, and those who survived left the country 3. Cultural factor (Confucianism Vs Theravada Buddhism) Confucianism: Self-cultivation, more engaged in international activities, & also selective with international programs & partners. Patron-Client relationships : dependent on foreign donors (patron), who played more active role in international activities. Also, the idea of middle-path : open approach - They accept most foreign programs. 4. Internal Political Stability China had one party government, so it was internally stable This was advantageous when it came to decision-making. Cambodia had two prime ministers after the 1993 election and different political parties still existed in the country until 1997.
2. Autonomy: respect for theoretical perspectives rooted in local culture China in the 1980s - Autonomy existed in most programs in China. - Most participants showed respect for Chinese culture and knowledge system. - Chinese scholars who went to Canada also indicated that Canadian people were willing to learn from them as well. Cambodia in the 1990s - There was also autonomy in the Cambodian case, in French program. [longer than other programs] - Programs with other countries were shorter.
3. Solidarity: - Growing links among Southern participants - Gaining support from both institutional & national levels China in the 1980s - There was competition among Chinese scholars and universities to participate in international programs. - However, foreign knowledge was widely disseminated among Chinese scholars. - Also, there was strong support from the government at both local and national levels in all international programs. Cambodia in the 1990s - There was also solidarity in French-Cambodian programs. For example: - There were links among the University of Health Sciences and many Cambodian public hospitals. - Cambodian scholars were also connected with those from other Francophone universities as well. - There was also strong support from institutions and the government.
4. Participation: Participants from the South are fully involved in all activities & contribute to knowledge production on an equal basis. China in the 1980s - China was able to contribute to certain fields of sciences and engineering. - However, there was limited participation in management sciences and natural sciences. - Knowledge transfer took place in a two-way manner. Cambodia in the 1990s - In most programs, there was a lack of participation in terms of knowledge production - Also, knowledge transfer took place in a unidirectional manner. Curricula were mostly designed by Western experts
Concluding Remarks The issues of mutuality in Chinese HE in the 1980s and in Cambodian HE in the 1990s were influenced and shaped by three key factors: 1. Geopolitical and economic interests of Western countries. 2. The role of nation-states: Strong China Vs Weak Cambodia 3. The cultural values: Chinese Confucianism vs Cambodian Theravada Buddhism
Thank You!
Some Key References Ayres, D. (2000). Anatomy of a crisis: education, development, and the state in Cambodia, 1953-1998. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Clayton, T. (2006). Language choice in a nation under transition: English language spread in Cambodia. Boston, MA: Springer. Galtung, J. (1975). Peace: Research, education, action; Essay in peace education. Copenhagen, Christian Ejlers. Hayhoe, R. (1989). China s universities and the open door. New York: M.E. Sharpe. Held, D. (2010). Cosmopolitanism: Ideals, realities & deficits. Cambridge, Polity Press. Pit, C. & Ford, D. (2004). Cambodian higher education: Mixed visions. In Altbach, Philip G. & Umakoshi, Toru (Ed.). Asian universities: Historical perspectives and contemporary challenges (pp. 333 362). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Song, Y. (1994). A comparative study of education aid policies of the World Bank and the Canadian International Development Agency in Chinese higher education (Doctoral thesis). University of Toronto, Toronto, ON.