Acculturation Strategies : The Case of the Muslim Minority in the United States Ziad Swaidan, Jackson State University Kimball P. Marshall, Jackson State University J. R. Smith, Jackson State University Abstract Worldwide immigration patterns and immigration into the United States in particular are creating new market opportunities. For marketers approaching immigrant groups, variations in immigrant acculturation strategies may represent new market segments. Focusing on Muslim immigrants in the United States, this study tests a theoretical framework of acculturation strategies that minority groups use in adjusting to host cultures. Four types of strategies are considered.- assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization. A sample of 414 was used to test the theoretical framework. The results revealed that there is a relationship between respondents' desire to keep their original culture and English/native language use, recency of arrival, and age. The results also indicated that there is a relationship between participants' desire to adopt the American culture and English/ native language use, recency of arrival, age, and gender. Integration was the most preferred strategy used by Muslim respondents and separation was the second most common strategy. Introduction America mainly consists of either immigrants or descendants of immigrants who brought with them their distinctive cultures. Immigrants come to the U.S. in search of economic opportunity. America is seen by many people as a place of hope, a "golden mountain" where dreams come true (Swerdlow, 1998). According to the U. S. Bureau of the Census (1997), about 26 million U.S. residents were born abroad, the most since 1930. In addition, the Federal Census Bureau (2000) reported that currently, minorities make up 28 percent of the U.S. population and their share is expected to increase to 47 percent in 2050. AMA Marketing News (2001) reported that the U.S. minorities buying power almost doubled between the years 1990 and 2001 from 439.9 to $860.6 billion. Acculturation Acculturation refers to changes in cultural attitudes, values, and behaviors as an outcome of geographical contact between members of two distinct cultures. When operationalized, acculturation denotes assimilation of the acculturating group into the culture of the dominant group. This assumption implies that acculturating group members change their behavior, attitudes, and values toward those of the host society. Cultural changes range from relatively superficial changes (e.g., modes of dress, schooling, transportation, housing, and food), to deeper ones involving language shifts, religious conversions, fundamental alterations to value systems,
and shifts in forms of social organization and social relations. Acculturation strategies In plural societies, immigrants must deal with the issue of how to acculturate. Immigrants work out strategies with respect to two issues: original culture maintenance and host culture adoption (Berry, 1997). When these two underlying issues are considered simultaneously, a conceptual framework is generated which posits four acculturation strategies. First, assimilation strategy holds when individuals of the acculturating group choose to adopt the dominant culture and to shed their original culture. Second, separation strategy prevails when immigrants place more value on keeping their original culture and avoid adopting the dominant culture. Third, integration strategy prevails when there is an interest in both maintaining original culture while at the same time seeking to participate as an integral part of the dominant culture. Fourth, marginalization dominates when there is little interest in maintaining the original culture and little interest in adopting the dominant culture (e.g. in case of enforced cultural loss combined with enforced segregation). Acculturation Framework Studies in cross-cultural psychology found many variables that affect the process of acculturation (Berry, 1997). Variables include; demographics (e.g., age, gender, education, and occupation)(baek, 1989); recency of arrival (Kealey, 1989). Other variables include, degree of religiosity (Alkhazraji et al., 1997); social interaction and language use (Laroche, Kim, and Torniuk, 1996); attitudes toward the host society and attitudes toward traditional values (Karam, 1994). This study tests a framework that examines the influence of six independent variables (age, education, gender, language use, occupation, and recency of arrival) on acculturation of minority groups. In addition, it uses two measures (adopt American culture and keep original culture) to classify respondents into four acculturation groups (assimilators, integrators, marginalizors and separators). Age It is easier for younger immigrants to adopt the new for older immigrants. Researchers found that it is more difficult for older immigrants to assimilate into the host society than younger immigrants (Penaloza, 1994). They proved that when acculturation starts early (e,g. before entering primary schools) the process is generally smooth (Beiser et al., 1988). Older people do often experience substantial problems, particularly during adolescence. From this evidence, we forward the following hypothesis: H1- Younger immigrants will be less committed to maintaining their original culture than older immigrants.
Gender Male members of minority groups tend to assimilate into the host society faster than, feniale members. 'Mere is substantial evidence that females may be more at risk from acculturation problems than males (Beiser et a]., 1988). Alkhazraji et al. (1997) found that Muslim females were less accepting of American culture than males. Male members of minority groups have better chances to assimilate, because they have more social and occupational interaction with Americans than females. Hazuda, Stem, and Haffher (1988) found that Mexican men, due to their occupational interaction, were more assimilated into the U.S. society than Mexican females. Based on this evidence, we propose the following hypothesis: H2: Male immigrants will be less committed to maintaining their original culture than females. Education Education appears as a consistent factor associated with positive adaptations: higher education is predictive of lower stress (Beiser et al., 1988). A number of reasons have been suggested for this relationship. First, education is a personal resource in itself Problem analysis and problem solving are usually instilled by fon-nal education and contribute to better adaptation. Second, education is a correlate of other resources, such as income, occupational status, support networks etc., all of which are themselves protective factors. Third, for many immigrants, education may attune them to features of the society into which they settle; it is a kind of pre-acculturation to the language, history, values, and norms of the new culture. Alkhazraji et al. (1997) found that there is a direct relationship between level of education and assimilation, the higher the education level the greater the acceptance of American culture. Based on these findings we suggest the following hypothesis: H3: Immigrants with higher levels of education will be less committed to maintaining their original culture than those with lower levels of education. Occupation I Occupation is another important factor that affects the acculturation process. Alkhazraji et al. (1997) found an inverse relationship between occupation level and willingness to keep original culture. They found that Muslims with higher levels of occupations are more willing to assimilate into the American culture than those with lower status occupations. Elkholy (1966) after studying assimilation patterns of two Muslim Arab communities in Detroit and Toledo found that the differences in assimilation patterns between these two communities were due to variations of occupations. Higher level occupations facilitate entry to the American economic and social systems (Karam, 1994). Usually, immigrants who have higher occupations have better education and have higher income. These variables give immigrants better chances to learn and adopt the host culture. Based on this reasoning, we advance the following hypothesis:
H4: Immigrants with a higher occupational standard (e.g. Professionals) will be less committed to maintaining their original culture than those with lower occupational standard (e.g. semiskilled workers). Recency of Arrival How long a person has been experiencing acculturation strongly affects the kind and extent of the acculturation process (Hull, 1978). Nayerahmadi (1990) found an inverse relationship between length of stay and satisfaction with life in the U.S. and homesickness. The longer the stay in the U.S. the lower the homesickness, and the higher the satisfaction with life in the U.S. Immigrants who have been in the U.S. for a shorter period suffer more problems in adjusting to the U.S. culture than immigrants who have been in the U.S. for a longer period of time (Penaloza, 1994). Past research, regarding the relationship between acculturation and time spent in the U.S. lead us to propose the following hypothesis: H5: Immigrants with a longer stay in the U.S. will be less committed to maintaining their original culture than those with a shorter stay in the U.S. Language Use (Native/ English) Host language use is an important factor for immigrants' assimilation into the new culture (Elkholy, 1985). Language may speed up the assimilation process, or it may inhibit it. The more the immigrants use the host language, the faster they adjust to the new culture. O'Guinn and Meyer (1984) found that more assimilated Mexican Americans use the Spanish-language media less than other Mexican Americans. On the other hand, original language plays an important role in preserving cultural identity. Maintenance and frequent use of the original language is a good indicator that immigrants prefer to keep their original culture. Kim (1988, p. 124) said that. Research generally supports the idea of an inverse relationship between degree of ethnic communication and degree of communication with host nationals." From this evidence we advance the following hypothesis: H6: Immigrants who use their native language less frequently will be less committed to maintaining their original culture than those who use English more frequently.
Methodology Population Several factors contributed to the choice of Muslims in the U.S. as the subject of this study. First, the estimated size of the Muslim minority in the U.S. is between six to eight million, and the number continues to increase at a fast pace. In addition, Muslims represent one of the fastestgrowing religious groups in the U.S. Second, Muslim cultural and religious beliefs are perceived to be different than the cultural and religious beliefs that dominate the U.S. society. Third, few social studies have been conducted on the Muslim minority in the U.S. Thus, research which focuses on this minority is needed. Subjects The sample for this study has been selected from a major southern metropolitan area. The instrument was handed to 900 subjects who shopped in the Middle Eastern stores in that area. Four hundred sixty-six subjects returned completed surveys, for a response rate of 51.78%. Among the 466 questionnaires, 414 were usable. Demographic Attributes of the Respondents All respondents were born outside the U.S. The average age of the participants is 33.60 years. The means of respondents' stay in their home country and the U.S. are 18.85 and 12.27 years respectively. Table I explains other demographics.
Measures This study used three scales to derive the information necessary to test the hypotheses. A survey design was used to measure the variables. Coefficient alpha was used to assess the reliability of the scales. The Cronbach alpha coefficients for Language Use, Adopt American Culture and Keep Original Culture were 0.89, 0.76, and 0.95 respectively. Muslims' Acculturation Strategies To calculate the strategies of acculturation, willingness to adopt U.S. culture scale (AAC) and willingness to keep original culture scale (KOC), were combined and categorized following the procedure used by Alkhazraji et al. (1997) into four strategies: If AAC > 3.0 & KOC < 3.0 = Assimilation If AAC > 3.0 & KOC > 3.0 = Integration If AAC < 3.0 & KOC > 3.0 = Separation If AAC < 3.0 & KOC < 3.0 = Marginalization Most Muslim respondents (59.7%) chose integration as their preferred acculturation strategy. Separation was the second most preferred strategy at 25.6 percent, while 6.5 percent of the respondents chose assimilation, I percent chose marginalization, and 7.2 percent did not choose any strategy (Neutrals). Assimilation From the population sampled, only 6.5 percent of the respondents chose assimilation as their preferred acculturation strategy. This small number of respondents may reflect a sampling difficulty. As this group consider themselves Americans, Assimilators distance themselves from their original culture. Assimilators do not attend Islamic centers, and they do not shop at the oriental stores. Even though, this study tried to draw a balanced sample, it was difficult to locate or communicate with assimilators, and it was more difficult to get them (if found) to fill out the questionnaire. Integration Most Muslim respondents (59.7%) chose integration as their preferred acculturation strategy. This means that most subjects preferred to keep their original language, religion, traditional customs and social connections with other members of the Muslim minority and work to be an integral part of the host society. This result matches other acculturation studies, which found that ethnic groups in North America favor preserving their original culture and language as they acculturate into the host culture (Laroche et al., 1996).
Marginalization One percent of the respondents chose marginalization as their favorite strategy. According to Berry (1997), marginalization prevails when the host society forces both assimilation and segregation on the minority group. In case of marginalization, people rarely choose such an option; rather they usually become marginalized as a result of forced assimilation (Pressure Cooker) combined with forced exclusion (Segregation). Separation Separation was the second most common acculturation strategy for Muslim respondents, 25.6 percent of the respondents chose separation as their preferred strategy. Individuals who chose separation usually prefer to live by their original culture. Separation involves resistance and attempts to change the environment where the immigrant lives. Sometimes separation involves moving away from the host environment back to the original culture or creating environment where the original culture dominates. In the current U.S. society separation is difficult to pursue and to implement. Americanization forces are very powerful. The style of living, fireedom, society, friends, competitive economy and media all tend to work against keeping traditional cultures of various minorities. Results and Discussion Age (H.1) Regression analysis was used to evaluate the relationship between age and the dependent variables. Analysis revealed that relationships between age and willingness to adopt American culture, and age and willingness to keep original culture are significant (.000 and.000). It indicates that the relationship between age and willingness to adopt U.S. culture is negative (b = - 0.23), and the relationship between age and willingness to keep original culture is positive (b = 0.32). This means that as age increases, the acceptance of the American culture decreases, and the willingness to keep original culture increases. These results support hypothesis 1. Adopt American culture and keep original culture variance explained by age is low (5% and 10% respectively). This says that age is not a primary factor in explaining willingness to adopt American culture or keep original culture.
Gender (H2) ANOVA was used to explain the relationship between gender and the dependent variables AAC and KOC. ANOVA indicates that the relationship between gender and willingness to adopt the U.S. culture is significant. It also reveals that the relationship between gender and willingness to keep original culture is not significant. These results partially support hypothesis 2. The willingness to adopt U.S. culture average scores for female (3.09) and male (3.51) indicate that, Muslim females are less accepting of the American culture than males. The insignificant relationship between gender and willingness to keep original culture indicates that both males and females prefer to keep their original culture. These results support previous research, which found that Muslim females were less accepting to U.S. culture than Muslim males. On average, Muslim females have lower levels of education than males. Past research found that there is an inverse relationship between education level and willingness to keep original culture, the lower the education level the higher the rejection level of the host culture (Alkhazraji et al., 1997). In addition, most respondent females do not work (55%). Female respondents lower education level and occupation limit their interaction with the host society. Past research found that interaction with the host society is an important prerequisite of assimilation (Laroche et al., 1996). Muslim males usually interact with American society more frequently than Muslim females. This limited interaction makes the acculturation process of females slower than for males. Similarly, Hazuda et al. (1988) found that Mexican American males who have more social and occupational interaction with the American society than Mexican females were more assimilated into the U.S. culture than females. Education (M) and Occupation (M) ANOVA was used to explain the relationship between education, and occupation and AAC and KOC. ANOVA reveals that the relationships between education, occupation, and adopt U.S. culture and keep original culture are not significant. These results do not support hypotheses 3 and 4. Recency of Arrival (H5) The fifth hypothesis evaluates the relationship between the length of stay in the U.S. and AAC and KOC. Regression analysis reveals that the relationship between recency of arrival and adopt U.S. culture and keep original culture is significant (0.008 and 0.007). Beta coefficients (b-0.13) suggest a negative relationship between, keep original culture and years of residency in the U.S. and a positive relationship (b--o. 13) between years spent in the U.S. and adopt U.S. culture. These results support the fifth hypothesis. Adopting American culture relates to the years of residency in the U.S. It is more likely that the longer the subject stays in the host culture the more (s)he has the opportunity to learn that culture, and the more likely that (s)he would adopt that culture (Penaloza, 1994).
Language Use (M) Regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between language and AAC and KOC. Analysis reveals that the relationships between language use and adopt the U.S. culture and between language use and keep original culture are significant (0.000 and 0.000). The Beta coefficients suggest an inverse relationship between native language use and respondents' desire to adopt the U.S. culture (b = -0.48) and direct relationship between native language use and subjects' willingness to keep their original culture (b = 0.55). The direction of Beta coefficients supports the sixth hypothesis. This means that native language use is Positively related to the subjects' desire to keep their original culture and negatively related to their effort to adopt the American culture. Moreover, respondents who prefer to use their native language demonstrated more willingness to keep their original culture than individuals who prefer to use English in their communications. R square indicates that Language Use explains 23 percent of the variance of the respondents' willingness to adopt U.S. culture. R square indicates that Language Use explains 30 percent of the variance of the respondents' desire to keep their original culture. High values of R square indicate that language use is an important variable in explaining the two dependent variables. References AlkhaziJi, Khalid Mohammad, William Gardner 111, Jeanette S. Martin, and Joseph G. P. Paolillo: The Acculturation of Immigrants to U.S. Organizations: the Case of Muslim Employees. Management Communication Quarterly 11 (1997): 215-263. Berry, John W.: Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation. Applied Psychology: an International Review, 46 (1997): 533. Elkholy, Abdo A., The Arab American Family, in Ethnic Families in America, Habenstein, Robert W. and Charles H. Mindcl, Eds., New York: Elsevier North Holland 1985, pp. 438-455,, Hazuda, Helen P., Stem, Michael P., and Haffner, Steven M.: Acculturation and Assimilation Among Mexican Americans: Scales and Population-Based Data. Social Science Quarterly, 69 (September 1988): 687-706. Hull, Frank W.: Foreign Students in the United States of America: Coping Behavior Within the Educational Environment, New York: Praeger Publishers 1978. Kealy, D. J.: A Study of Cross-cultural Effectiveness: Theoretical Issues, Practical Applications. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 13 (1989): 387-428. Kim, Young Yuri: Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 1988. Laroche, Michel, Chankon Kim, Michael K. Hui, and Annamma Joy: An empirical Study of Multidimensional Ethnic Change. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 27 (1996): 114-13 1.
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