INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW

INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW EDITED BY DANIEL MOECKLI University of Zurich SANGEETA SHAH University of Nottingham SANDESH SIVAKUMARAN University ofnottingham CONSULTANT EDITOR: DAVID HARRIS Professor Emeritus and Co-Director, Human Rights Law Centre, University ofnottingham OXJFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

DETAILED CONTENTS Preface Notes on Contributors Abbreviations Table of International Instruments Table of Cases xxvii xxix xxxiii xxxix li WHAT ARE HUMAN RIGHTS FOR? 1 PARTI FOUNDATIONS 1 HISTORY 17 Summary 17 1 Introduction 17 2 Human Rights on the Domestic Plane 18 2.1 The Enlightenment Thinkers 19 2.2 Human Rights Transformed into Positive Law 21 2.3 Nineteenth-century Challenges to Natural Rights 23 2.4 Domestic Protection of Human Rights Today 24 3 Human Rights on the International Plane Before the Second World War 27 3.1 International Humanitarian Law and the Abolition of the Slave Trade 27 3.2 The Protection of Minorities and the League of Nations 29 4 Human Rights on the International Plane After the Second World War 32 4.1 Crimes Against Humanity 33 4.2 The UN Charter 34 4.3 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 35 5 Conclusion 36 Further Reading 37 Useful Websites 38 2 PHILOSOPHY 39 Summary 39 1 Introduction 39

X DETAILED CONTENTS 2 The Nature and Foundations of Human Rights 40 2.1 What are Human Rights? 40 2.2 Do Human Rights Need Some Special Sort of Justification? 42 2.3 What Are the Foundations of Human Rights? 43 3 Gewirth's Argument for Human Rights to Freedom and Welfare 48 4 Griffin on Autonomy and Human Rights 53 5 John Rawls and the Law of Peoples 57 6 Conclusion 61 Further Reading 62 Useful Websites 63 3 CRITIQUES 64 Summary 64 1 Introduction 64 2 Early Critiques 67 2.1 The Realist Critique 67 2.2 The Utilitarian Critique 70 2.3 The Marxist Critique 72 3 More Recent Critiques 75 3.1 The Cultural Relativist or Particularist Critique 75 3.2 The Feminist Critique 78 3.3 The Postcolonial Critique 81 4 Conclusion 84 Further Reading 85 4 POLITICS 87 Summary 87 1 Introduction 87 2 The Interrelationship Between Human Rights and Politics 88 2.1 Changes in Thinking About the Ruler/Ruled Relationship 88 2.2 Demands for Inclusion: The Anti-racism Movement 89 3 Power and the Political Terrain for Human Rights 92 3.1 'Power Over' 92 3.2 'Power With' 93

DETAILED CONTENTS xi 3.3 The Politics of Disability Rights 94 4 Armed Conflict and Human Rights Politics 96 4.1 Peace Agreements 96 4.2 Humanitarian Intervention 98 5 Conclusion 99 Further Reading 100 Useful Websites 100 PART II INTERNATIONAL LAW 5 SOURCES Summary 1 2 3 4 5 Introduction Formal Sources Treaties 3.1 The Principal Treaties 3.2 The Importance of Treaties 3.3 Revitalizing the Treaty System Customary International Law Jus Cogens 6 General Principles of Law 103 103 103 105 105 106 107 108 110 113 114 7 Judicial Decisions ^5 7.1 Interaction at the International and Regional Levels 116 7.2 Interaction between National Courts 117 7.3 Human Rights Litigation 118 8 Writings of Jurists 118 9 Other Sources 9.1 Work of Treaty Bodies 9.2 Resolutions of International Institutions 120 119 119 9.3 Other Forms of Soft Law 10 Conclusion Further Reading Useful Websites 121 122 123 123

Xii DETAILED CONTENTS 6 NATURE OF OBLIGATIONS Summary 1 Introduction 2 The 'Special Character' of Human Rights Obligations 3 Implementation of Human Rights Obligations 3.1 Respect 3.2 Protect 3.3 Fulfil 3.4 Margin of Appreciation 4 Reservations 4.1 Permissibility 4.2 Responsibility for Assessment 4.3 Consequences 5 Limitations and Derogations 5.1 Limitations 5.2 Derogations 6 Withdrawal 7 Remedies for Violations of Human Rights Obligations 8 Conclusion Further Reading 7 SCOPE OF APPLICATION Summary 1 Introduction 2 Who has Human Rights Obligations? 3 Who has Human Rights? 3.1 Non-nationals 3.2 The Unborn 3.3 Artificial Entities 4 For Which Entities is a State Responsible? 4.1 Private Actors 4.2 International Organizations 4.3 Other States 5 Where Do Human Rights ADDIV? 124 124 124 127 130 130 130 131 132 134 135 137 138 140 140 143 144 146 148 149 150 150 150 151 151 151 152 153 154 155 156 159 160

DETAILED CONTENTS Xlii 5.1 ECHR 161 5.2 ACHR 163 5.3 African Convention on Human and Peoples' Rights 164 5.4 ICCPR 164 5.5 ICESCR 165 5.6 Overall Assessment 167 6 Conclusion 169 Further Reading 169 PART III SUBSTANTIVE RIGHTS 8 CATEGORIES OF RIGHTS 173 Summary 173 1 Introduction 173 2. Categories of Human Rights 174 2.1 Economic, Social, Cultural Rights/Civil, Political Rights 174 2.2 Rights of Individuals/Rights of Collectivities 176 2.3 One-dimensional/Compos/te.R»gfe 178 3 Interdependence and Indivisibility of all Human Rights 178 4 Core Rights 181 5 New Human Rights? 183 6 Conclusion 187 Further Reading 188 9 EQUALITY AND NON-DISCRIMINATION 189 Summary 189 1 Introduction 189 2 The Meaning of Equality and Non-discrimination 190 2.1 Formal Equality 191 2.2 Substantive Equality 192 3 Equality and Non-discrimination in International Law 193 3.1 Sources 193 3.2 Scope: Subordinate and Autonomous Norms 194 3.3 Prohibited Grounds of Distinction 196

Xiv DETAILED CONTENTS 4 Direct and Indirect Discrimination 197 4.1 Direct Discrimination 198 4.2 Indirect Discrimination 198 4.3 Discriminatory Intention 199 5 Justified and Unjustified Distinctions 200 5.1 The Justification Test 201 5.2 Standard of Review 202 5.3 Evidence and Proof 203 6 Positive Action 204 7 Conclusion 207 Further Reading 207 Useful Websites 208 10 INTEGRITY OP THE PERSON 209 Summary 209 1 Introduction 209 1.1 Respect for Human Dignity 209 1.2 The Right to Integrity of the Person 210 2 The Right to be Free from Torture and Ill-treatment 210 2.1 Sources 211 2.2 Legal Status 212 2.3 Components 213 2.4 Types of Obligation 218 2.5 Relationship with Other Human Rights 220 3 The Right to Life 220 3.1 Sources 221 3.2 Legal Status 221 3.3 Scope: Beginning and End of Life 222 3.4 Components 222 3.5 Types of Obligation 228 3.6 Relationship with Other Human Rights 229 4 Conclusion 230 Further Reading 231 Useful Websites 231

DETAILED CONTENTS XV 11 ADEQUATE STANDARD OF LIVING 233 Summary 233 1 Introduction 233 2 Meaning and Features 234 2.1 The Subsidiarity Principle 235 2.2 State Obligations 236 2.3 Equality and Non-discrimination as an Overarching Principle 237 3 Normative Content 237 3.1 The Right to Food 237 3.2 The Right to Housing 241 3.3 The Right to Health 243 4 Groups of People 246 4.1 Women 246 4.2 Children 247 4.3 Indigenous Peoples 248 4.4 Dalits in South Asia and Roma in Europe 249 5 Relationship with Other Human Rights 250 5.1 The Right to Social Security and Social Assistance 250 5.2 Civil and Political Rights 252 6 Progressive Implementation 252 7 The Importance of International Action 254 8 Conclusion 255 Further Reading 256 Useful Websites 256 12 THOUGHT, EXPRESSION, ASSOCIATION, AND ASSEMBLY 257 Summary 257 1 Introduction 257 1.1 Four Freedoms and Their Relationships 257 1.2 Limitations 258 2 Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion 260 2.1 Sources 260 2.2 Scope 260 2.3 Freedom of Religion or Belief 261

XVi DETAILED CONTENTS 2.4 Limitations 264 3 Freedom of Opinion and Expression 266 3.1 Sources 266 3.2 Scope 266 3.3 Limitations 269 4 Freedom of Association 271 4.1 Sources 271 4.2 Scope 272 4.3 Limitations 273 5 Freedom of Assembly 275 5.1 Sources 275 5.2 Scope 275 5.3 Limitations 276 6 Conclusion 277 Further Reading 278 Useful Websites 278 13 EDUCATION AND WORK 280 Summary 280 1 Introduction 280 2 The Right to Education 281 2.1 Sources 281 2.2 Features 284 2.3 The Aims of Education 285 2.4 Components 285 2.5 Types of Obligations 289 2.6 Relationship with Other Human Rights 291 3 The Right to Work and Work-related Rights 292 3.1 Sources 293 3.2 Features 296 3.3 Components 297 3.4 Obligations 300 3.5 Relationship with Other Human Rights 301 4 Conclusion 302

DETAILED CONTENTS XVii Further Reading 302 Useful Websites 303 14 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 304 Summary 304 1 Introduction 304 2 Freedom from Arbitrary Detention 305 2.1 Sources 305 2.2 Scope 306 2.3 Guarantees to those Deprived of their Liberty 309 2.4 Emergency Detention Powers 313 3 Enforced Disappearance 314 4 Security of the Person 314 5 The Right to a Fair Trial 315 5.1 Sources 315 5.2 Scope 316 5.3 Generally Applicable Fair Trial Guarantees 317 5.4 Fair Trial Guarantees in Criminal Proceedings 323 5.5 Protection of Juveniles 328 5.6 No Punishment Without Law 328 6 Conclusion 329 Further Reading 329 Useful Websites 330 15 SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY 331 Summary 331 1 Introduction 331 2 Forms of Vulnerability to Human Rights Attack 332 3 Review of Law and Jurisprudence 334 3.1 Protection of Privacy Rights 334 3.2 Discrimination 335 3.3 General Human Rights Protection 338 4 Legal Initiatives to Bridge the Gap Between Law and Practice 341 5 Conclusion 343

XViii DETAILED CONTENTS Further Reading 344 Useful Websites 344 16 WOMEN'S RIGHTS 345 Summary 345 1 Introduction 345 2 A New Era of Non-discrimination on the Ground of Sex and Equality with Men 348 2.1 The Position Prior to 1945 348 2.2 The UDHR and the International Covenants 349 3 The Substantive Equality Approach of CEDAW 352 3.1 Towards a Robust Understanding of Equality 352 3.2 Limitations of the CEDAW Approach 354 4 Mainstreaming Women's Human Rights 359 4.1 Re-imagining the Universal Subject: The Approach of the Human Rights Committee 359 4.2 Analysing the Relationship between Gender and Racial Discrimination: The Approach of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 360 4.3 Addressing the Inequality of Both Women and Men: The Approach of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 361 4.4 Recognizing Gender as a Key Factor: The Approach of the Committee against Torture 361 5 Conclusion 362 Further Reading 363 Useful Websites 364 17 RIGHTS OF PEOPLES AND MINORITIES 365 Summary 365 1 Introduction 365 1.1 Group Rights 365 1.2 Group Rights v Rights of Individuals 366 1.3 Relevance of the Right of Self-determination and the Rights of Minorities 367 2 The Right of Self-determination 368 2.1 Concept 368

DETAILED CONTENTS Xix 2.2 Definitions 368 3 The Application of the Right of Self-determination 371 3.1 Colonial Context 371 3.2 Outside the Colonial Context 373 3.3 Indigenous Peoples 374 4 The Exercise of the Right of Self-determination 375 4.1 External and Internal Self-determination 375 4.2 Procedures for Exercising the Right of Self-determination 378 5 Limitations on the Exercise of the Right of Self-determination 379 5.1 Rights of Others 379 5.2 Territorial Integrity 380 5.3 Other Limitations 382 6 Minorities 383 6.1 Rights of Minorities 383 6.2 Defining 'Minorities' 384 6.3 Exercise of Minority Rights 385 6.4 Individual v Group Rights 385 7 Conclusion 386 Further Reading 387 PART IV PROTECTION 18 UNITED NATIONS 391 Summary 391 1 Introduction 391 2 The Human Rights Council 392 2.1 1946-2006: From the Commission on Human Rights to the Human Rights Council 392 2.2 Composition, Working Methods, and Mandate 394 2.3 Universal Periodic Review 395 2.4 Responses to Country Situations 397 2.5 Special Procedures 398 2.6 Complaint Procedure 401 2.7 Human Rights Council Advisory Committee 402

XX DETAILED CONTENTS 2.8 Conclusion 403 3 The Treaty-based Bodies 404 3.1 State Reporting 406 3.2 General Comments 408 3.3 Inquiries 409 3.4 Complaints Procedures 410 3.5 Treaty Body Coordination, Harmonization, and Reform 415 3.6 Conclusion 417 4 The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 418 4.1 Technical Cooperation Activities 419 4.2 Human Rights Education and Information 420 4.3 Human Rights Components of Peacekeeping Operations 421 4.4 Human Rights Field Presences 422 4.5 Relationship with National Human Rights Institutions 424 4.6 Voluntary Funds 424 4.7 Right to Development and the Millennium Development Goals 425 4.8 Conclusion 425 5 Human Rights Activities in Other Parts of the UN 426 5.1 General Assembly 427 5.2 Security Council 428 5.3 Secretary-General 429 5.4 International Court of Justice 430 6 Conclusion 430 Further Reading 431 Useful Websites 432 19 THE AMERICAS 433 Summary 433 1 Introduction 433 2 Historical Overview 434 3 American Convention on Human Rights 436 4 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 437 4.1 Structure and Composition 438 4.2 Individual Complaint Procedures 438

DETAILED CONTENTS XXJ 4.3 Utner Roles ot me Commission 5 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 5.1 Structure and Composition 5.2 Contentious Cases 5.3 Court-ordered Reparations and State Compliance 5.4 Interim Measures 5.5 Advisory Jurisdiction 6 Challenges to the Inter-American System 7 Conclusion Further Reading Useful Websites 440 442 442 443 444 447 448 450 451 452 453 20 EUROPE Summary 1 Introduction 2 The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe 3 The Council of Europe 3.1 Origins 3.2 Key Institutions 3.3 Key Instruments 4 The European Convention on Human Rights 4.1 Substantive Rights 4.2 Institutional and Procedural Background 4.3 Complaints Procedures 4.4 Resolution of Complaints 4.5 Supervision of the Execution of Judgments 5 The European Union 5.1 The European Court of Justice and Human Rights 5.2 The Charter of Fundamental Rights 5.3 The Fundamental Rights Agency 6 Conclusion Further Reading Useful Websites 454 454 454 455 456 456 457 458 460 461 462 464 468 472 474 475 476 477 477 478 478

XXU DETAILED CONTENTS 21 AFRICA 479 Summary 479 1 Introduction 479 2 Historical Overview 481 3 The African Charter and Other Relevant Treaties 483 3.1 Norms Recognized in the African Charter 483 3.2 Duties and Limitations 485 3.3 Protection of Women, Children, and Vulnerable Groups 485 4 The Protective Mechanisms 487 4.1 The African Commission 487 4.2 The African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights 492 4.3 The AU Main Organs and Human Rights 493 4.4 The African Peer Review Mechanism 495 5 Conclusion 496 Further Reading 496 Useful Websites 497 22 WITHIN THE STATE 498 Summary 498 1 Introduction 498 2 Substantive Protections 499 2.1 Incorporation of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Law 500 2.2 Constitutional Guarantees of Human Rights 506 2.3 Legislative Protection of Human Rights 508 2.4 Common Law Protection of Human Rights 510 3 Institutional Protections 511 3.1 The Courts 511 3.2 The Executive 513 3.3 The Legislature 513 3.4 Other Bodies 513 4 Conclusion 516 Further Reading 517 Useful Websites 517

DETAILED CONTENTS XXiii PARTV LINKAGES 23 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW 521 Summary 521 1 Introduction 521 2 What is International Humanitarian Law? 522 3 Different Histories; Shared Values 524 4 Reasons for the Application of Human Rights Law in Armed Conflict 526 4.1 Non-applicability of International Humanitarian Law 526 4.2 Duty to Investigate 528 4.3 Enforcement 528 5 The Relationship Between the Two Bodies of Law 530 5.1 Rights Exclusively Matters of International Humanitarian Law 532 5.2 Rights Exclusively Matters of International Human Rights Law 532 5.3 Rights Matters of Both International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law 532 5.4 An Alternative Approach: Regulation through Application of International Human Rights Law 535 6 Difficulties with the Application of International Human Rights Law to Armed Conflict 536 6.1 Asymmetrical Obligations Between the Parties 536 6.2 Differential Obligations within a Coalition 537 6.3 Sphere of Applicability: The Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Treaties 537 7 Conclusion 538 Further Reading 539 Useful Websites 539 24 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 540 Summary 540 1 Introduction 540 2 Human Rights Law and International Crimes 542 2.1 Genocide 542 2.2 Crimes against Humanity 546 2.3 War Crimes 550

XXIV DETAILED CONTENTS 3 Prosecutions: International and National 552 4 Non-prosecutorial Options 555 4.1 Amnesties 555 4.2 Truth and Reconciliation Commissions 556 5 Conclusion 556 Further Reading 558 Useful Websites 558 PART VI CHALLENGES 25 NON-STATE ACTORS 561 Summary 561 1 Introduction 561 2 The Challenge of Non-state Actors 564 2.1 Globalization 564 2.2 Privatization 565 2.3 Fragmentation of States 565 2.4 Feminization 566 3 The Legal Framework 566 4 The Obligations of International Organizations 570 5 International Criminal Responsibility of Non-state Actors 572 6 Corporate Social Responsibility and the Move towards Accountability 572 7 Armed Opposition Groups 575 7.1 The UN Security Council on Children and Armed Conflict 576 7.2 UN Special Procedures 578 7.3 NGOs and the Example of Geneva Call 579 8 Conclusion 581 Further Reading 581 Useful Websites 582 26 TERRORISM 583 Summary 583 1 Introduction 583 2 Is Terrorism a Violation of Human Rights? 584 3 Applicability of Human Rights Law in the Fight against Terrorism 586

DETAILED CONTENTS XXV 3.1 Times of Armed Conflict or Emergency 586 3.2 Extraterritorial Applicability of Human Rights Law 587 4 The Notion of Terrorism and its Misuse 588 5 Substantive Challenges to Human Rights Law in the Fight against Terrorism 590 5.1 Freedom from Torture and Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment 591 5.2 Right to Liberty and Right to a Fair Trial 592 5.3 Right to Non-discrimination 594 5.4 Other Human Rights 596 6 An Institutional Challenge: Terrorist Listing by the Security Council 597 7 Conclusion: Is the Pendulum already Swinging Back? 599 Further Reading 600 Useful Websites 601 27 POVERTY 602 Summary 602 1 Introduction 602 2 Human Rights and Poverty in the Global Economy 603 2.1 Poverty and its Significance for Human Rights 604 2.2 Development, Social Justice, and Human Rights 606 2.3 The Context of Poverty and Human Rights: Globalization 606 3 Divergence of Poverty Reduction and Human Rights Agendas 607 3.1 Resistance to Human Rights Discourse in Economic Thinking 608 3.2 The Perspective of Central Banks and Ministries of Finance 611 4 Convergence of Poverty Reduction and Human Rights Agendas 612 4.1 Trends in Economic Thinking Congruent with Human Rights 613 4.2 Human Rights Approaches in Poverty Reduction Policies 614 5 Conclusion 619 Further Reading 621 Useful Websites 621 28 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 622 Summary 622 1 Introduction 622 2 Substantive Environmental Rights 624

XXVI DETAILED CONTENTS 2.1 African Charter 625 2.2 San Salvador Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights 626 2.3 Progress at the UN 626 2.4 Indirect substantive environmental rights 627 2.5 Substantive Environmental Rights at the National Level 632 2.6 Is There a Need for a Substantive Environmental Right? 633 3 Procedural Environmental Rights 636 3.1 The Aarhus Convention 636 3.2 Indirect Procedural Environmental Rights 640 4 Conclusion 641 Further Reading 642 Useful Websites 642 Index 643