Foreign policy is the sum total of the processes and actions that regulate the relations between a given state and its international environment. It consists of diplomatic, economic, military, and cultural actions which are typically the result of decisions by government bodies and organizations that are formally charged with safeguarding and advancing the state s interests vis-à-vis other states and nonstate actors in the international system.
The Realist Paradigm Foreign policy is the result of external factors. States respond to threats and opportunities arising in their international environment. Foreign policy seeks to maximize state s interests in an anarchic international system. The domestic structure and processes within states have little effect on foreign policy The Liberal Paradigm Foreign policy is the result of both external and internal factors. The domestic structure of states affects their foreign policy behavior. International processes affect domestic politics, just as domestic politics affect foreign policy. Foreign policy is affected both by formal structures and by informal actors and processes.
Informal Factors Formal Factors Interest Groups Public Opinion Media Parliament Bureaucracy Government Judiciary
Key functions of the legislature Budget allocation for foreign policy objectives (defense, foreign aid) Oversight of executive operations and policies, ratification of international treaties, appointment of key officials, and general follow up on executive policies. Oversight on government institutions through committees
1. The judiciary interprets the consistency of government actions with constitutions or internal and international law. 2. The judiciary regulates the relations between and among various branches of the government, within the framework of the constitution or the law. 3. The judiciary interprets the extent to which government actions in general, and in foreign policy in particular preserve fundamental civil liberties and the rights of individuals and groups.
The bureaucracy includes those bodies, institutions, and organizations that concern both the determination of inputs for foreign policy decisions and the implementation of those decisions. Institutions responsible for collecting inputs for foreign policy: Intelligence agencies Research departments in various government ministries Finance ministry Institutions that are responsible for policy implementation Military and defense ministry Foreign Ministry Ministries of economic development
1. To provide decision makers with information regarding the actions, intentions, capabilities, policies, and domestic political processes of (state and nonstate) actors in the international system. 2. To determine the limits of feasible actions of the state, given its resources, domestic, and external constraints. This determines the feasibility of various policy options for the decision makers. 3. Policy coordination among various bodies in charge in carrying out the state s policies. 4. Policy implementation, policy evaluation, and provision of feedback to decision makers regarding the outcomes of various policies.
Bureaucracies wish to maximize their influence and insure their organizational survival. In order to accomplish these goals, each organization wants to maximize its budget. In order to justify a large budget, each organization must stress that it is irreplaceable in the policy process, this results in: An intense inter-organizational competition, in which each organization attempts to increase its influence relative to others in the process of making and implementing policy. Such a competition leads to:
Wide gaps between the spirit of decision and the actual implementation of foreign policy decisions. Policy implementation is influenced by organizational interests. Also, bureaucracies work through Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). These regulate the functioning of organizations. In many cases, organizations try to fit reality to existing SOPs, rather than to adapt to changes in the real world. This results in: Conservatism in policy making and implementation. Political decision makers may become servants of organizational interests and procedures: Where you sit is where you stand.
The literature on public opinion and foreign policy focuses on four main questions: 1. What is the relevant public opinion for foreign policy issues? 2. Who influences whom: the public influences decision makers, or policy makers make public opinion? 3. What are the conditions and circumstances under which public opinion has significant impact on policy making in foreign affairs? 4. Is there such a thing as world public opinion and does it matter?
Gabriel Almond. The American People and Foreign Policy Identified three types of public that are relevant for foreign policy matters: 1. The General Public. Accounts for 80-90% of the population. It is characterized by Little information about foreign affairs Little interest in foreign affairs Little influence on foreign policy 2. The Attentive Public. Accounts for 9-19% of the public. Considerable information about foreign affairs Considerable interest in foreign affairs Limited influence on foreign policy.
Types of public opinion (continued) 3. Policy and Opinion Makers. About 1% of the population. It is characterized by High level of (including classified) information about foreign affairs Extensive and professional interest in foreign affairs Significant influence on foreign policy
Interrelations Between Public Opinion and Foreign Policy There are three schools of thought regarding the mutual effects of public opinion on foreign policy. 1. The Active Public. Public opinion influences foreign policy. The public especially the attentive public has ongoing impact on policy making. 2. The Passive Public. The public typically rallies around the decisions of foreign policy decision makers and adjusts its views in accordance with changes in policy. 3. The Rational Public. The public forms independent opinions about policy. It is affected both by the policy itself and by other factors.
1. Routine Situations: Public has little interest in and effect on policy making; Policy makers affect public opinion. 2. Crisis Situations: Rally around the flag effect. Public typically supports positions taken by policy makers, whether these decisions are consistent with previous policies, or whether they represent a sharp departure from previous policies. 3. War Situations: The longer the war and the less evident are its accomplishments, the greater the gap between the public and the government. Ultimately, changes in public opinion affect policy change.
What is the effect of casualties in war on public opinion? Casualties as an indicator of progress in war. Casualties as predictor of outcome. Casualties and sunk costs. Casualties and war weariness.
The term Military-Industrial Complex was coined by President Eisenhower in his farewell speech. The partners in the alliance: industrial interests, the military bureaucracy, politicians, foreign interests. The key objectives: money, power, and influence. The aspects of cooperation: R&D, defense spending, threat perception, political support.
Implications of Military-Industrial Arms races. Strategic overkill. Self-feeding hostility Complex Manipulation of threats, possible escalation of conflicts, reduced oversight of legislature and judiciary over policy making.