1 Internal Migration Udaya S Mishra S Irudaya Rajan Draft Thematic Paper 2
This is a draft thematic paper. It was prepared by Prof. Udaya S Mishra and S Irudaya Rajan from Centre for Development Studies. The views expressed herein are those of its author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ILO. May 2018 2
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Contents 1. Abstract.. 5 2. Introduction... 5 3. Changing Trends in Mobility in India and the Peculiarity of Kerala 7 4. Inter-State Migration in Kerala. 9 5. Out-migration from Kerala.. 10 6. Age Profile of Internal Migrants 11 7. Age Pattern of In-migration into Kerala: New Evidences 13 8. Inter-district and Intra-district Migration Streams in Kerala.. 14 9. Educational Profile of Internal migrants in Kerala... 17 10. Reasons for Migration... 18 11. Remittances 19 12. Impact of Migration on Households 20 13. References.. 21 4
1. Abstract This paper examines varied aspects of internal migration (in-and-out migration) in Kerala along with inter-state, inter-district and intra-district migration. Kerala is ahead in the experience of demographic transition compared to all other Indian states and union territories which manifests itself in quantum and pattern of both internal and international migration. According to the 2011 Census, there are 457 million internal migrants in India accounting for 37.8 per cent of the total population and in Kerala this percentage was 48.9 per cent. One out of two persons in Kerala is an internal migrant. Over the decades, Kerala s external (international) migrants were replaced by internal (in) migrants. During 1961-81, most of the Kerala migrants moved within India compared to emigrants from the state but the oil boom in Gulf region has entirely transformed the migratory patterns of the state leading to a rising share of emigrants. According to the latest Kerala Migration Survey (2014) conducted by the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), Kerala has an estimated 2.4 million international migrants and 0.7 million internal migrants accounting for the absence of 3.1 million. Besides the Kerala Migration Survey, this paper will make use of alternative databases such as decennial Indian censuses, two rounds of National Sample Surveys and domestic migrant survey carried out by the Gulati Institute of Finance and Taxation (GIFT) to assess the impact of migration on Kerala economy and society by analyzing demographic, social and economic characteristics such as age, sex, education and reasons for migration. Incidentally, the in-migrants to Kerala is estimated at 3.4 million in 2017 as per the GIFT, which almost matches the quantum of internal and international migrants from Kerala giving rise to the phenomenon of Replacement Migration. This phenomenon of migration explosion is not be read in isolation as they may very well be conditioned by the rising levels of urbanization in Kerala indicated by the shift in urban population share from a meagre 26 percent in 2001 to 47.7 percent in 2011. This study also highlights the patterns of inter-district migration in Kerala which reveals that the central and northern parts of the Kerala account for 20-25 per cent of the migrants as against south Kerala s share which has been below 17 per cent over the census periods. When we examine the four migration streams (rural-urban, rural-rural, urban-urban and urban-rural), the rural to rural and urban to urban migration streams were dominated by females. Male migration is predominantly due to economic reasons as against that of females which is primarily owing to marriage. The relatively higher wages, large employment opportunities and shortages of local labourers make Kerala a lucrative job destination for workers from outside the State. This has made Kerala an emerging destination of internal migrants from other states in India, while Kerala continues to sending its own people as workers to the Middle East and Europe. At the same time, Kerala s lagging productive sectors and its major economic activities find a renewal with the current inflow of migrant workers to the state. The diverse roles played by the internal migrants to the state not only in terms supplementing its work force but also in terms of maintaining the vibrancy of state s economy have far reaching socio-economic implications. 2. Introduction Migration as a component in interpreting demographic structure of the population has not been pronounced till recently. The process of demographic transition has been nearing its final stage, with fertility and mortality levels representing a near perfect replacement level of growth in population. The current population count of 1.21 billion in India, as of 2011 Census, is the result of a fertility transition from a TFR of 5.4 during 1970s to that of 2.5 in 2015, alongside a substantial improvement in longevity during the period. Transforming fertility and mortality regimes are manifested in the changing age-profile of the population, which can be observed in the rising median age of the 5
population. However, population age structure, particularly in its productive ages, is greatly influenced by mobility of people which is an inevitable consequence of uneven development. Processes of migration and rapid urbanization also influence the population age structure of regions. According to the Census of India 2011, there are 457 million internal migrants in India which accounts for 37.8 per cent of the total population compared to220.7 million during 1991 which amounted to 27.1 per cent of the total population. The share of migrants in total population has increased by 10.7 percentage points during last two decades. This quantum increase in mobility induced by disparities with respect to regional development, has its own bearing on the provincial age structure. This results in further classification based on regions with positive net migration vis-àvis the others characterized by negative net migration. Migration, both internal and international, together with the advances made with regard to demographic transition has undoubtedly been a distinct feature of the state of Kerala. A visible consequence of such distinction is its share of elderly population which is one of the highest among Indian states (Rajan and Aliyar, 2012). Although a small state in physical terms with high population density, its demographic features compares well with developed nations. The working age of population in Kerala has significantly increased by 12.5 per cent between 1961 and 2011. However, large numbers of working age population, currently estimated at 2.4 million persons have emigrated from Kerala. This has given rise to a situation wherein emigrants are being replaced by the flow of in-migrants from other states in India into Kerala (Zachariah and Rajan, 2014). Internal migration and its impact on changing demographics and workforce participation is an emerging issue in Kerala. The state has been receiving large numbers of migrants from other states of India, especially from the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and neighboring state of Tamil Nadu. These migrants have outnumbered the local workforce and their numbers particularly outweigh in sectors such as constructions, hotels, plywood and jewelry-making industries. According to the Indian censuses, internal migration is defined as any movement within the political boundaries of the nation which results in a change of usual place of residence from the past residence or place of birth. Based on this, internal movements within the political frontier of states or nation are classified as intra-district, inter-district and inter-state movement. These three categories of internal movements across and within states are together termed as internal migration. Intra-district migrant is a person who is born outside the place of enumeration but within the district of enumeration, who may otherwise be considered as a short-distance migrant. Inter-district migrant refers to a person who crosses the boundary of the district of enumeration but moves within the state of enumeration. We can define him as a medium-distance migrant. Inter State migrant refers to a person who moves across the boundary of the state of enumeration but within the national boundary. We can consider them as long distance migrants. Any of these categories of migrants can be categorized as two types namely in-migrants and out-migrants, within the national boundary constituting the quantum of internal migration. In-migrants at the destination are out migrants from the origin. According to Census, individuals who cross the boundaries of a region for the purpose of living in at the place of enumeration, is an in-migrant. Out-migrants are defined as those people who leave from their place of origin. 6
3. Changing Trends in Mobility in India and the Peculiarity of Kerala Usually, the concept of internal mobility/internal migration is defined either in terms of place of birth or place of last residence. The former definition treats everyone found in a place other than his/her place of birth as a migrant, while the latter designates those with a place of last residence different from the place of enumeration as a migrant, with the duration of residence at the place of enumeration. The various rounds of National Sample Surveys can be used to gauge migration. In this paper, we explore the two recent rounds of NSSO, 49 th and 64 th, collected during 1993 and 2007-08. The latest round of 64 th NSSO Survey covered total sample size of 3515 households for Kerala, including 2238 rural households and 1277 urban households. This data offers migration details along with the sociodemographic profile, economic activities and remittance of migrants and it also categorizes migrants in terms of whether they are in-migrants, out-migrants and short-term migrants. In addition, we will also explore the several rounds of Kerala migration surveys which collected data on out-migration of Malayalis to other states of India. Table 1: Share of Migrants to the Total Population (%) in India and Kerala 1971-2011 Share of Migrants to the Total Population India 1971-2011 Total Rural Urban Year Persons Male Female Persons Male Female Persons Male Female 1971 29.1 17.5 41.7 27.2 12.9 42.3 36.9 35.0 39.2 1981 30.3 17.2 44.3 28.3 12.1 45.3 36.8 33.2 40.8 1991 26.9 14.1 40.9 25.6 9.7 42.5 30.9 26.3 36.1 2001 30.1 17.0 44.1 28.0 11.1 45.8 35.5 32.0 39.4 2011 37.5 22.6 53.2 37.0 18.7 56.3 27.4 22.9 32.2 Share of Migrants to the Total Population in Kerala 1971-2011 Total Rural Urban Year Persons Male Female Persons Male Female Persons Male Female 1971 20.6 15.7 25.4 20.8 15.4 26.0 27.6 17.0 22.0 1981 25.3 19.1 31.3 12.5 19.3 32.3 22.7 18.4 26.9 1991 28.2 20.7 35.4 29.1 20.9 37.0 25.6 20.1 30.9 2001 28.9 21.9 35.5 29.0 21.3 36.3 28.5 23.6 33.2 2011 48.9 40.3 56.9 63.4 48.6 77.2 25.6 24.7 26.4 Sources: Computed by authors from Census of India from various Census Reports. Table 1 offers a trend of internal migrants as a share of total population in Kerala and India in which a migrant is defined according to the criterion of place of last residence. The share of migrants in the total population of Kerala more than doubled over the period between 1971and2011. But such increase in recent times has been substantial in Kerala i.e. about 20 per cent during the last decade of 2001 to 2011. When compared with the national scene, the situation in Kerala was no different till 2001 but the data from the last decade reveals a notable departure in the quantum of internal migration to Kerala. Further, the share of migrants observed according to gender of the migrant, indicates that across the nation the numbers of females are dominant and increasing. Although this share used to be relatively lower in case of Kerala it has caught up during the last decade. Similarly, the residential divide shows that urban space is more prone to witnessing migrants vis-a-vis the rural space at the national level which is rather narrower in Kerala. The interesting feature emerging form this analysis hints at the rural space gaining in terms of migration share when compared with the urban space during the most recent decade. 7
Examining the phenomenon of internal migration in terms of in and out migration from the state in comparison with the quantum of interstate migration at the national level, based on the two most recent rounds of NSSO datasets, reveals stark contrasts. While out migration is largely rural centric, in-migration is urban centric. This pattern holds true for Kerala as well. Rural migration was of largest magnitude in India, perhaps Kerala too, now it has been changing slowly. Table 2 provides the figures on internal migration per1000 persons in India and Kerala during 1993 and 2007-08, which is based on last usual place of residence and present place of residence obtained from National Sample Survey 49 th and 64 th rounds. It reveals that out-migration from the states of India and Kerala was largest particularly with respect to the movement from rural origin when compared with urban origin. About 8 out the 10 persons were out-migrants from rural areas of India and Kerala during 1993 but this declined to 7 out of 10 persons during 2007-08. Out-migration from urban spaces was marginal compared to rural in both All India and Kerala while urban in-migration substantially increased. In-migration into urban spaces in All India and Kerala was significantly high compared to out-migration from urban spaces and this ratio slightly increased in 2007-08. The rural in-migration and out-migration ratios were comparatively equal during 2007-08 in India while Kerala was in a much better position than All India because the ratio between in-migration and out-migration in rural Kerala was at 2 point in 1993, but this gap reduced by 1 point in 2007-08. Table 2: Internal Migration in India and Kerala (per 1000 persons) in 1993 and 2007-08 1993 Out-Migration from the States of India In-Migration in the States of India Sector Male Female Total Male Female Total Rural 802 746 795 500 558 527 Urban 198 254 205 500 442 474 Total 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Out-Migration from Kerala In-Migration in Kerala Sector Male Female Total Male Female Total Rural 772 861 786 586 659 622 Urban 228 139 214 414 341 378 Total 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 2007-08 Out-Migration from the States of India In-Migration in the States of India sector Male Female Total Male Female Total Rural 712 715 713 574 590 581 Urban 288 285 287 426 410 419 Total 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Out-Migration from Kerala In-migration in Kerala Male Female Total Male Female Total Rural 662 683 675 624 609 617 Urban 338 317 325 376 392 383 Total 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Sources: Based on NSS data 49 th and 64 th Round (Government of India 1993 and 2007-08). According to the distribution of migrants by gender, both males and females had migrated from rural India though comparatively male migration was highest in 1993. In Kerala, females were more among out-migrants from rural areas than males. As against the female dominated in-migration in Indian states, situation in Kerala was changing in 2007-08. Both male and female out-migration from the 8
states of India and Kerala were not much different but the numbers of females substantially increased among in-migrants to and out-migrants from Kerala. Obviously the female migration is significantly high in the flow of out-migrants from Kerala, which may be caused by marriage and family migration. Generally, in India, males outnumber females in most migration streams and it also true of Kerala migration patterns (Zachariah et.al. 2014). 4. Inter-State Migration in Kerala According to the Census of 1991 and 2001, inter-state migration from and to Kerala has marginally increased over the decade. Out-migration from the state far outweighs in-migration into the state, indicating that the state has a larger share of its population distributed across other states of India. This quantum has marginally increased within the decade under verification. Further, such migration, although favourable to males, the quantum of migration between sexes is nearly comparable. When it comes to in-migration to the state, it is nearly about half that of the quantum of outmigration. This undoubtedly makes the state a loser state in terms of net migration. 1200000 1000000 Fig 1: Inter-State Migration in Kerala 1991 and 2001 800000 600000 400000 1991 2001 200000 0 Total Male Female Total Male Female In-migration Out-migration Inter-state migrants are those people who move out-from the place of origin from one state and enter into their new destinations in another state. In Kerala, out-migration has been significantly high according to the 2001 Census compared to preceding year (see figure.1 and male out-migration from Kerala was higher than female). This indicates that male migration from Kerala has predominance for economic reasons. At the same time female out-migration was substantially higher in 2001 compare to 1991 but in percentage terms the total inter-state migration of females increased by a meager 1.2 per cent during the period. During the last decade, female out-migration from Kerala has hardly shown an increase as against the female in-migration which was considerably higher. Inmigration into the state in terms of individuals originating from others states of India, have been increasing. During 2001, in-migration into Kerala accounted to 0.45 million which increased from 0.43 million in 1991. When out-migration from the state outnumbers in-migration, it becomes imperative to verify the regions that account for such mobility. In the year 1991, in-migrants to the state was dominated by neighbouring state residents like Tamil Nadu followed by Karnataka and Maharashtra. This trend has more or less remained the same as per the 2001 census as well. However, the other state residents in Kerala represented by those from Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh have marginally increased their share among in-migrants to the state. As regards out-migration from the state, although 9
neighboring states account for a larger share of out-migrants, there is a diversification over time as indicated by the distribution of Malayali out-migrants across Indian states. In 1991, a major share of out migrants were found in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Karnataka, whose share has come down by the year 2001 resulting in more out-migrants from the state in Delhi and other north Indian states. The share of out migrants from the state has risen in states like Karnataka and Maharashtra as against a reduction in Tamil Nadu. Table 3: States of Destination/Origin for Kerala In-Migrants and Out-Migrants: Evidence from 1991 and 2001 Censuses Census 1991 Census 2001 In- Migration into Kerala Outmigration From Kerala Inmigration into Kerala Outmigration from Kerala States Andhra Pradesh 2.4 4.5 2.8 4.1 Delhi 1.2 4.1 1.5 6.7 Gujarat 1.0 4.0 1.4 4.0 Karnataka 14.2 20.6 14.0 25.0 Madhya Pradesh 1.4 5.1 0.9 2.3 Maharashtra 6.4 18.1 6.6 24.6 Pondicherry 3.4 1.2 2.0 1.2 Tamil Nadu 62.4 32.6 62.1 21.0 Uttar Pradesh 1.2 1.6 1.4 1.6 Others 6.5 8.2 7.3 9.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Sources: Census of India 1991 and 2001 5. Out-migration from Kerala: Results from Kerala Migration Surveys The Kerala migration survey (KMS) is another source providing estimates of out-migrants in Kerala since 1998. Along with the emigration estimates, it also estimates the number of out-migrants from Kerala to rest of India. Between 1998 and 2003, out-migrants in Kerala has increased by 4 lakhs and then declined by 2 lakhs during 200-3-2008 and again 2 lakhs during 2008-2013. In other words, over the period of time, Kerala migrants prefer to emigrate rather than out-migrate within the country. As of 2013, Kerala has 0.7 million out-migrants. On the other hand, in-migration into Kerala has been rising and it amounts to 2.5 million in 2013 (Narayana and Venkiteswaran, 2013). The decline of labour force and the continuous movements of persons from Kerala to rest of India and abroad necessitate large scale migration into Kerala, in order to replace the workforce within the state. Table 4: Number of Out-migrants and Its Change during 1998-2013. Year Out-migrants Increase/Decrease 1998 691695 --- 2003 1115601 423906 2008 914387-201214 2013 700342-214045 Source: Kerala Migration surveys 1998-2013 10
Traditionally out-migrants from Kerala go to the neighboring states. These include Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra. In 2008, these three states attracted two-thirds of such out-migrants from the state (66.3 percent). In 2011, the share of these states increased to 73.7 percent but it declined 64.8 in 2013. In recent years, out-migrants from Kerala have extended to non-traditional destination such as Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Table 5: Out-migrants by Destination States 1998-2014 States 2003 2008 2003 1198 Karnataka 33.1 27.2 19.7 12.9 Tamil Nadu 17.3 20.7 21.3 15.8 Maharashtra 14.4 18.4 23.6 32.2 New Delhi 8.1 8.9 9.5 9.4 Andhra Pradesh 4.2 5.4 5.1 4.3 Gujarat 3.4 3.1 4.9 3.9 Punjab 1.1 1.3 1.1 0.0 Madhya Pradesh 1.8 1.7 1.7 0.0 Uttar Pradesh 2.0 1.8 2.3 2.3 Goa 0.5 1.5 1.3 0.0 West Bengal 1.3 1.3 1.2 0.0 Jharkhand 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 Rajasthan 0.9 1.8 2.2 3.0 Assam 0.9 0.3 0.5 0.0 Others 10.5 6.6 5.5 16.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Kerala Migration Survey (KMS) 6. Age Profile of Internal Migrants: Evidence from the NSSO The state of Kerala has always been a losing state in terms of net migration after its integration with the Indian union since 1956. There was a significant outflow of persons from Kerala to Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Delhi and other states of India (Zachariah, Mathew and Rajan, 2003). In recent times, the state experiences both out-migration and in-migration, owing to its shrinking work force and high rate of emigration. With greater labour mobility from the states, there is a tendency of replacement migration from other states. In this perspective, it becomes relevant to go beyond the total quantum of migration and analyse the age-sex structure of this type of migration. For this purpose, we make a comparison of two rounds of NSSO data with a gap of about 15 years. While out migrants from the state were largely concentrated in ages 15-35 in 1993, it has spread over 15-45 ages in 2008. This could very well be a consequence of changing age structure of the labour force in Kerala owing to the faster decline in fertility and its resultant impact on the ageing of labour force. On the other hand, in-migration from other states into Kerala was not in keeping with the age composition of out migrants in 1993, in the sense that those going out were younger compared those coming in to Kerala. However, this trend has altered over time as we observe a comparable share of migrants across ages 15-45 between those going out of the state and those coming into the state in 2008. Another notable feature of in-and-out migrants is that the sex composition favours females. 11
Table 6: Age Distribution of Internal Migrants (in and out) in Kerala, 1993 and 2007-08 1993 Out-Migration In-Migration Age of Migration Male Female Total Male Female Total Age below 14 years 3.0 6.9 3.6 27.3 33.3 29.7 Age 15-25 years 42.7 67.4 46.6 22.7 26.7 24.3 Age 26-35 Years 38.8 22.2 36.2 31.8 26.7 29.7 Age 36-59 years 15.0 3.5 13.2 18.2 13.3 16.2 Age 60+ 0.5 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 2007-08 Age of Migration Male Female Total Male Female Total Age below 14 years 3.1 4.6 3.6 6.3 20.0 11.0 Age 15-25 years 33.3 30.9 32.4 35.4 28.0 32.9 Age 26-35 Years 31.5 31.3 31.4 37.5 16.0 30.1 Age 36-59 years 30.9 30.5 30.7 18.8 28.0 21.9 Age 60+ 1.3 2.7 1.8 2.1 8.0 4.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Sources: Based on NSS data 49 th and 64 th Round (Government of India 1993 and 2007-08) Figure 2: Age Pyramid Migrants from and to Kerala, 2001 Census 60+ 35-59 years 25-34 years 15-24 years 0-14 years 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 OutMig-Female OutMig-Male InMig-Female InMig-Male 12
Figure 3: Age Pyramid Migrants from and to Kerala. 49 th NSS Round 1993 Age 36 and Above Age 30-35 Years Age 24-29 Years Age 18-23 Years Age Below 18 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 In mig-female In Mig-Male Figure 4: Age Pyramid Migrants from and to Kerala, 64 th NSS Round 2007-08 Age 36 and Above Age 30-35 Years Age 24-29 Years Age 18-23 Years Age Below 18 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 In mig-female In mig-male Out Mig-Female Out Mig-Male 7. Age Pattern of In-migration into Kerala: New Evidences In recognition of the limitation of census data in capturing short duration, seasonal and temporary migration, an attempt was made at gauging the quantum of domestic labour migrants into Kerala during 2013 by Gulati Institute of Finance and Taxation, Thiruvananthapuram. This study estimates the number of in-migrants in Kerala including their characteristics such as age, sex and place of origin. Accordingly, the stock of estimated in-migrants in Kerala was around 2.5 million and the new arrivals are expected to be around 0.23 million. If we add 0.23 million annually, the current stock of inmigrants in Kerala is estimated around 3.4 million. Such migrants belong to the ages 18-35 years and originate from states like West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and other parts of India. These findings are closer to our estimations based on the Inter-State Migration Survey conducted at the CDS (Irudaya Rajan and Summetha, 2015). The state of West Bengal leads in sending migrants to Kerala with a share of 20 percent followed by Bihar, Assam and Uttar Pradesh and Orissa which shared 6.67 per cent of such migrants. Apart from the above mentioned states, migrants from elsewhere accounted for 23.13 percent of all such migrants. While a majority (40.95 percent) of such 13
migrants belonged to the age group 18-23years, 34.29 percent belonged to ages 24-29. In terms of the age distribution, migrants originating from Assam and West Bengal are relatively younger when compared with those from other states. In any case, age profile of these migrants indicate that they belong to prime working ages and undoubtedly serve to replace the absence of domestic workforce of these ages who have migrated out of Kerala. Table 7: Distribution Age and Origin of In-migrants in Kerala State Below 18 18-23 24-29 30-35 36 and above Not reported % Share Uttar Pradesh 0.0 38.5 38.5 15.6 7.3 0.0 14.8 Assam 1.6 50.4 34.7 10.2 2.4 0.8 17.3 West Bengal 1.4 46.3 29.3 15.0 7.5 0.7 20.0 Bihar 0.8 34.6 33.1 21.1 9.0 1.5 18.1 Orissa 2.0 34.7 30.6 20.4 10.2 2.0 6.7 Others 1.2 37.7 37.7 14.7 8.8 0.0 23.1 Total 1.1 41.0 34.3 15.7 7.4 0.7 100.0 Sources: Gulati Institute of Finance and Taxation, 2013 8. Inter-district and Intra-district Migration Streams in Kerala Internal migration accounts for migration within the state as well which can consist of two types intradistrict and inter-district and can be termed as short distance and medium distance migration within the state and extensive analysis on migration streams can be done using both census data as well as NSSO rounds. As the required data for the analysis is yet to be published for the period of 2011 census, we limit our discussion for the census years over the last 40 years 1961-2001.Table 8 presents the data on this aspect. While analyzing these four intra-state migration streams, that is, Rural-Rural, Rural-Urban, Urban-Urban and Urban-Rural, except for the Rural-Rural stream, the medium distance migration has always had a greater share. It means that most of the intra-district mobility is between rural areas but when it comes to inter-district mobility, it is largely urban driven and hence will indicate the kind of purpose leading to such migration. Another feature that is discernible from the analysis is in terms of origin of migration which remains predominantly rural that is gradually shifting to urban origin base over the years. This is also indicative of the process of urbanization in Kerala, 47.7 percent urban as per 2011 census. In the case of rural to urban migration stream, both distance categories have increased their proportion to around 9 per cent as against urban to rural migration in Kerala which is shrinking. In the pasta major share of internal migration originated from rural areas rather than urban (Irudaya Rajan, 2013). Overtime this trend has altered in the state which could very well be owing to the changing urbanrural composition. Year Distance of Migration Table 8: Migration Streams in Kerala, 1961-2001 Rural- Rural- Rural Urban Urban- Rural Urban- Urban 1961 Short-Distance 81.1 5.6 10.1 3.2 Medium 70.2 7.8 13.7 8.4 1971 Short-Distance 79.4 7.8 10.7 2.1 Medium 67.4 10.9 14.1 7.5 1981 Short-Distance 73.4 11.3 11.3 4.1 Medium 58.0 13.3 18.1 10.6 1991 Short-Distance 63.8 16.4 14.7 5.0 Medium 52.1 14.0 20.6 13.1 2001 Short-Distance 54.0 14.1 9.7 5.7 Medium 58.5 16.4 9.1 7.6 Source: Based on the censuses., Short-Distance = Intra-district Migration, Medium Distance= Inter-district Migration 14
When we examine the phenomenon of internal migration in-terms of four streams using the NSSO data, it is evident that Rural-Rural stream is getting replaced by Urban-Urban stream of migrants. In fact, it is on account of male migration alone, that the trends shift towards Urban-Urban stream of migrants. Given the inflow and outflow of migrants, it becomes pertinent to examine the age structure. In 1990s, the female movements into Kerala in the stream of rural to rural and urban to urban flow of migration has shown a considerable improvement compared to male but female inflow in the stream of urban to urban has gone down by around 22 per cent in 2007-08. At the same time, male migration from rural to urban has increased to 50 per cent in 2007-08 from 46.2 per cent in 1993 and female migration has slipped down by 5 per cent during the same period 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 Figure 5: Migration Streams into Kerala, 1993 80.0 70.0 60.9 64.3 53.9 55.6 46.2 44.4 39.1 35.7 30.0 20.0 Male Female Total 0.0 Rural-Rural Rural-Urban Urban-Rural Urban-Urban Figure 6: Migration Streams into Kerala, 2007-08 80.0 75.0 60.0 40.0 54.8 50.0 50.0 45.2 25.0 57.1 42.941.2 41.9 58.8 58.1 20.0 0.0 Rural-Rural Rural-Urban Urban-Rural Urban-Urban In-migrant Stream 64th Round Male In-migrant Stream 64th Round Female 15
8.1. District Wise Analysis of Migration The spatial dimensions of population mobility in Kerala during last two decades are of interest to our inquiry. There had been a substantially dip in intra-district migration during 1971 in Kerala. It immediately rose to 3 per cent in1981, but after that internal migration has been increasing. The percentage of intra-district and inter-district migration computed to the total population in all the districts in Kerala is presented in Table 9. The central districts of Kerala (Ernakulam, Thrissur, Palakkad, Kottayam) account for the larger share of migration and more pronounced is the share of intra-district migration. Northern districts of Kerala (Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram and Kasaragod) have a larger share of in migrants over the period. The Southern districts of Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha) have a marginal share. Inter-district migration in Kerala was low compared with intra-district migration over the decades. Among districts, Wayanad, Idukki and Pathanamthitta were predominant districts which border between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Since 1981, inter-district migration had increased but it lost momentum, for few districts (Idukki and Wayanad) experienced for the first time a negative population growth rate. The central and northern parts of the Kerala were consistent with 8 per cent in inter-district migration and south Kerala s share was meager over the period. Table 9: Intra district and Inter-district Migration in Kerala to total population, 1961-2001 Intra-District Inter-District 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Kasaragod A A A 15.4 11.7 A A A 7.3 6.5 Kannur 20.3 15.6 19.6 21.8 32.2 7.3 8.4 7.3 7.6 6.8 Wayanad A A 9.2 15.8 12.4 A A 29.5 19.9 16.9 Kozhikode 17.6 13.1 23.6 23.4 19.7 6.0 9.9 7.6 6.4 5.2 Malappuram A 12.4 15.0 16.7 17.2 A 4.0 5.5 5.2 4.7 Palakkad 17.7 15.9 18.3 17.7 16.4 2.7 4.3 6.9 6.8 6.9 Thrissur 21.9 18.1 25.9 29.7 27.3 4.4 4.0 5.6 6.6 5.9 Ernakulam 17.5 14.5 17.6 17.9 26.6 6.2 6.7 8.0 8.5 9.5 Idukki A A 11.1 15.5 18.3 A A 38.8 22.3 18.1 Kottayam 23.3 20.1 21.3 22.4 19.8 8.2 8.8 8.3 9.3 10.2 Alappuzha 15.4 12.5 16.4 16.6 18.0 4.6 4.7 6.5 8.5 8.7 Pathanamthitta A A A 18.3 20.3 A A A 12.4 13.2 Kollam 15.7 13.2 15.6 14.4 15.2 5.6 5.5 6.2 5.5 4.9 Thiruvananthapuram 13.4 10.8 12.7 11.2 14.0 2.6 2.9 3.5 3.4 3.6 KERALA 18.0 14.6 17.6 18.7 19.9 5.3 6.0 7.7 7.8 7.4 Sources: Gayathri, 1996 and Census of India 1991 and 2001. 8.2. District-Wise Analysis of Rural and Urban migration in Kerala Comparing rural and urban migration as a percentage of the population, intra-district migration was higher in rural areas than urban areas while urban migration was more pronounced in inter-district flows since 1961 to 2001 (see tables10 and 11). The district-wise distribution of intra-district migration shows its predominance in the rural sector especially in Thrissur, Ernakulam, Kottayam, (central part of Kerala) Kozhikode and Kannur (northern part of state). The proportion of intra-district urban migration in southern parts of Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Pathanamthitta and Alappuzha) was meager but in the last decade the proportion of urban migration consistently increased in southern parts of Kerala. Inter-district migration, among the urban areas was very pronounced in the districts of Ernakulam and Kottayam because these districts had experienced 16
industralisation compared to other parts of Kerala. However, in rural areas in these districts, the share of migration to population was marginal. Table 10: Distribution of Rural Intra-District and Inter-District Migration 1961-2001 (as percentage of the rural population) Intra-District Inter-District 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Kasaragod - - - 16.8 12.3 - - - 7.6 6.9 Kannur 20.9 16.1 20.1 21.8 33.1 7.8 9.0 8.4 11.2 9.8 Wayanad - - 9.2 16.0 12.2 - - 29.5 19.7 16.6 Kozhikode 18.1 14.7 23.8 29.7 23.1 6.0 10.6 5.7 5.5 4.4 Malappuram - 12.6 15.1 17.0 17.6-3.9 5.5 5.2 4.7 Palakkad 17.8 15.9 18.4 17.8 16.7 2.3 3.5 6.5 6.3 6.6 Thrissur 22.1 17.9 25.9 29.6 27.7 4.0 3.6 5.3 6.3 5.8 Ernakulam 17.8 16.1 20.7 23.1 30.8 4.7 5.1 6.1 6.7 8.2 Idukki - - 11.0 15.5 18.3 - - 28.0 22.3 17.9 Kottayam 23.8 20.8 22.0 23.5 20.5 7.7 8.5 7.5 8.6 9.5 Alappuzha 15.4 12.6 17.0 18.9 18.9 4.0 4.3 6.2 8.7 8.7 Pathanamthitta - - - 19.0 21.2 - - - 12.0 13.0 Kollam 15.9 13.3 16.2 15.3 16.9 5.3 5.2 6.0 5.2 5.0 Thiruvananthapuram 13.8 11.3 13.8 13.2 15.7 1.3 1.5 2.0 1.7 2.0 KERALA 18.4 15.2 18.4 19.9 20.4 4.9 5.6 10.9 7.7 7.3 Sources: Gayathri, 1996 and Census of India 1991 and 2001 Table 11: Distribution of Urban Intra-District and Inter-District Migration 1961-2001 (as percentage of the urban population) Intra-District Inter-District 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Kasaragod - - - 8.4 9.1 - - - 6.1 5.0 Kannur 17.0 12.6 18.5 21.8 31.2 4.7 4.5 3.6 4.1 3.9 Wayanad - - - 12.2 17.5 - - - 26.8 26.2 Kozhikode 15.7 8.6 10.3 13.3 14.2 5.9 7.7 8.6 7.8 6.6 Malappuram - 10.1 13.2 14.0 13.7-5.2 5.4 5.1 4.6 Palakkad 17.2 16.4 17.5 17.2 13.8 6.5 9.3 10.6 9.4 8.3 Thrissur 20.2 19.4 25.6 29.9 26.4 7.4 6.9 6.9 7.4 6.0 Ernakulam 16.3 10.4 12.8 12.5 22.0 11.5 11.0 10.9 10.5 11.0 Idukki - - 12.6 14.9 18.3 - - 23.5 22.1 20.3 Kottayam 18.9 14.5 14.7 17.4 16.1 13.0 11.5 15.4 12.3 14.1 Alappuzha 15.3 11.8 13.3 11.4 16.0 7.6 6.4 8.2 8.1 8.9 Pathanamthitta - - - 13.1 13.1 - - - 15.2 15.5 Kollam 13.6 11.7 11.6 10.4 7.6 9.8 8.9 7.2 6.6 4.6 Thiruvananthapuram 12.4 9.4 9.5 7.3 10.6 6.5 7.0 7.9 6.9 6.9 KERALA 15.8 11.6 14.4 15.2 18.5 7.8 8.0 8.3 8.0 7.5 Sources: Gayathri, 1996 and Census of India 1991 and 2001 17
9. Educational Profile of Internal migrants in Kerala Apart from quantum of internal migration, their characteristic features do matter. Examining the age and educational characteristics of internal migrants in the state between 1991 and 2001, it is evident that 15-40 years of age is the potential age for mobility and a certain level of education can increase the propensity to migrate when compared to being illiterate. Given the fact that educational levels over ages have undoubtedly improved over time in the state, it has helped mobility too. As is apparent from the comparison made in Table below, migrants in the year 2001 were educationally better off compared to those in 1991. Especially, the educational attainment of migrants with matric but below graduate has substantially increased to 39.1 per cent in 2001 from 27.9 per cent in 1991 among the age group of 15-34 years. This same age group was over represented in the educational level of graduate and above was about 8.1 per cent in 2001 and 4.8 per cent in 1991. The educational attainment of elderly people (age 60+) has been significantly high in the highest educational level of matric but below graduate (8.5 per cent) and graduate and above (2.3 per cent) in 2001 compared to 1991. Table 12: Educational Status of Migrants by Age, 1991-2001 Age and Educational Status of Migrants Age Illiterat e Literat e but Below Matric Matric but below graduat e Technic al diploma Graduat e and above Technical degree but equal to degree or post graduate Total 1991 0-14 49.0 50.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 15-34 4.4 59.8 27.9 1.9 4.8 1.2 35-59 14.5 63.6 14.0 2.5 3.6 1.7 60+ 33.1 59.7 4.6 1.0 1.1 0.5 Age Not States 5.2 77.4 12.5 0.9 3.0 1.0 All ages 19.5 59.3 15.4 1.6 3.1 1.0 Total 2001 0-14 47.9 52.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15-34 2.6 44.7 39.1 3.0 8.1 1.7 35-59 9.8 56.9 21.0 2.8 6.6 1.7 60+ 27.3 56.5 8.5 2.3 2.3 0.9 Age Not States 45.7 22.6 10.1 1.3 2.7 0.8 All ages 16.7 51.6 21.8 2.3 5.4 1.3 10. Reasons for Migration While analyzing migration from the state (out-migration) against migration into the state (i.e. inmigration) over two points of time using the NSS rounds 1993 and 2007-08, there seems to be a comparable outflow from the state on account of employment with that of inflow for reasons of employment in during the nineties. This pattern has altered to some extent as outflow for employment related reasons have come down considerably among out-migrants as against in-migrants. Almost four-fifth of movement out of the state is employment related and for pursuing further studies, during the nineties. This trend has slowed with reduced share of migrant outflows from the state on account 18
of employment or education. This could very well be due to migration from the state being more towards international destinations and not domestic ones. The observed trend of decline in share of out migrants on account of education could be due to shrinking educational age population of the state in recent times owing to fertility transition. Table 13: Reasons for Migration from and to Kerala, 1993 and 2007-08 Reasons for Migration into Reasons for Out-migration from Kerala 49th NSSO-1993 Kerala 49th NSSO 1993 Reasons Male Female Total Male Female Total Search of Employment/Better Employment 58.0 25.7 52.9 54.6 60.0 56.8 Take up Employment/Transfer of Services 22.8 16.7 21.8 18.2 13.3 16.2 Studies 15.5 34.7 18.5 4.6 0.0 2.7 Others 3.8 22.9 6.8 22.7 26.7 24.3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Reasons for Migration into Reasons for Out-Migration from Kerala 64th Round-2007-08 Kerala 64th NSSO 2007-08 Reasons Male Female Total Male Female Total Search of Employment/Better Employment 47.8 5.3 32.3 60.4 20.0 46.6 Take up Employment/Transfer of Services 34.4 9.5 25.4 31.3 48.0 37.0 Studies 10.1 14.1 11.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 Others 7.7 71.0 30.8 8.3 32.0 16.4 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Sources: NSSO. 11. Remittances The phenomenon of internal migration from the state has its own implication for remittances received by the state. Based on the reported remittances receiving households in Kerala from its internal migrants according to the NSSO survey 2007-08, it is observed that more than one-third of the households receive remittance to the tune of more than 20000 INR which is even more among rural households. The remittance receipt pattern indicates that households in the state do receive substantial remittances even from its internal migrants. Table 14: Inter-State Migrants send the remittances to Kerala 2007-08 Remittance Rural Urban Total Below 5000 23.1 31.7 24.8 5000-10000 21.7 14.4 20.3 10000-15000 8.7 12.1 9.4 15000-20000 8.1 17.9 10.0 20000 and above 38.3 24.0 35.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 19
12. Impact of Migration on Households Migration often has an obvious implication for the household size due to absence of few members within the household. While out-migrating households may have the absence of few members, inmigrating households need not necessarily be having all the household members along with them. In this perspective an analysis of household size becomes pertinent to be compared between migrant and non-migrant households. Table 15: Migration and Non-migration Household Size in Kerala 64 th Round 2007-08 Out-Migration HH Non-Migrants HH Household Size Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total One Member of HH 3.7 4.3 3.9 14.0 22.1 17.0 Two Members of HH 19.3 20.9 19.9 7.8 7.1 7.5 Three Members of HH 22.3 24.2 22.9 15.6 15.7 15.6 Four Members of HH 18.5 19.9 19.0 34.0 31.1 32.9 Five Members of HH 13.7 12.6 13.3 17.3 13.8 16.0 Six Members and Above the HH 22.5 18.2 21.0 11.4 10.3 11.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 In-Migration HH Non- Migrants HH Household Size Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total One Member of HH 44.1 50.0 46.5 5.8 9.3 7.0 Two Members of HH 9.2 8.8 9.1 14.4 15.0 14.6 Three Members of HH 11.2 15.7 13.0 19.9 20.6 20.1 Four Members of HH 22.4 18.6 20.9 25.7 25.7 25.7 Five Members of HH 8.6 2.0 5.9 15.8 14.1 15.2 Six Members and Above the HH 4.6 4.9 4.7 18.5 15.3 17.3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 On comparison of this based on the latest round of the NSSO surveys in 2007-08, it is evident that non-migrant households are relatively large-sized when compared with the migrant households. Also a comparison between out-migrating households and in-migrating households, it is apparent that inmigrating households are small-sized compared with the out-migrating ones. In fact, this pattern is more so in urban areas. 20
13. References Bell, Martin. 2003. Comparing Internal Migration between Countries: Measures, Data Sources and Results. Paper Presented in Population Association of America 2003, Minneapoplis, May 1-3. Bhagat, R.B., 2005. Conceptual Issues in Measurement of Internal Migration in India. IUSSP XXVth International Conference, Contributed Papers, France, July 18-23. Deshingkar, P (2006): Internal Migration, Poverty and Development in Asia, Briefing Paper, Overseas Development Institute, London. Deshingkar, P and S Grimm (2005): Internal Migration and Development: A Global Perspective, Paper for International Organisation for Migration, Geneva. Irudaya Rajan, S and Sabu Aliyar. 2012. Population Ageing, in S. Irudaya Rajan and K.C Zachariah (ed.), Kerala s Demographic Future Issues and Policy Options, pp.209-227. New Delhi: Academic Foundation. Irudaya Rajan, S. 2013. Internal Migration and Youth in India: Main Features, Trends and Emerging Challenges, Discussion Paper. UNESCO. Irudaya Rajan, S and Sumeetha M. 2015. Survival, struggle and the promise of a new future: living and working conditions of migrant workers in Kerala. Chapter 16, Pp. 240-255 in S Irudaya Rajan (ed). -India Migration Report 2015: Gender and Migration. Routledge, New Delhi. Nair, P.S.2010. Understanding Below-replacement Fertility in Kerala, India, Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, Vol.28 (4) pp.405-412. Singh, D.P., 1998. Internal Migration in India: 1961-1991 Demography India 27(1): 245-261. United Nations. 1993. Readings in Population Research and Methodology, The United Nations Population Fund, New York. Zachariah, K.C. 1963. Internal Migration in India from the Historical standpoint, Invited Paper, 34th Session, I.S.I., Ottawa, Canada. Zachariah, K.C. 1964. Historical Study of Internal Migration in the Indian Sub Continent, 1901-1931. Research Monograph 1, Demographic Training and Research Centre, Bombay. Zachariah, K.C, S.Irudaya Rajan and Jolin Joseph.2014. Kerala Emigration to Saudi Arabia prospects under the Nitaqat Law in S.Irudaya Rajan (ed.), Diaspora and Development India Migration Report 2014, pp.229-248. New Delhi: Routledge. Zachariah, K.C, E.T.Mathew and S.Irudaya Rajan. 2014. Dynamics of Migration in Kerala New Delhi: Orient Black Swan. 21
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WORK IN FREEDOM: ILO-DFID Partnership Programme on Fair Recruitment and Decent Work for Women Migrant Workers in South Asia and the Middle East The Work in Freedom is an integrated programme to support mobility by choice among women and girls from destination countries (India, Bangladesh and Nepal) to decent jobs with safety and dignity of workers in destination countries (India, Lebanon and Jordan) through fair recruitment processes. This thematic paper has been prepared by Centre for Development Studies, Kerala, India from support of the ILO s Work in Freedom Programme. The views expressed are that of the authors, and not necessarily reflect the views of the ILO. 24