Media Studies Liberal Pluralism Number 087 The aims of this Factsheet are to: define what is meant by liberal pluralism offer case study examples to illustrate aspects of liberal pluralism evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the concept Great Britain and most other Western countries are examples of liberal democracies. This means these cultures are committed to upholding citizens civil liberties and civil rights and to maintaining an open government. As a result of free and meaningful elections where there is a choice between a range of viewpoints and free competition between competing political parties, liberal democracy is generally accepted by those who are subject to it as it appears to offer free choice. A large part of any liberal democracy is the existence of media that are free from governmental control and influence. Liberal pluralism (also called pluralism) is the idea that individuals have a vast range of media messages to choose from, representing a variety of viewpoints and ideologies that exist in the society. This often seen as the opposite to Marxist views of the mass media which assume that the ruling class only allow media messages which support their position of control and the dominant ideology to be produced. This means that the majority of the media s content will suggest it is normal and right for there to be dominance of: white people over ethnic minorities men over women Christianity over other religions the nuclear family over alternative family structures capitalism over socialism or communism middle-aged adults over all other age groups heterosexuality over homosexuality or bi-sexuality being able-bodies over any for of disability (physical, mental or emotional) Glossary Nuclear family: a heterosexual, married couple with their own biological children living in a household together. Alternative family structures: single-parent families, stepfamilies, children in care or any other family that is not a nuclear family. Capitalism: also called free enterprise, an economic system in which private business operates in competition and largely free of state control. Socialism: a political and economic theory of social organisation that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. Communism: a political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs. Heterosexuality: having a sexual preference for the opposite sex (straight). Homosexuality: having a sexual preference for the same sex (gay or lesbian). Bi-sexuality: having a sexual preference for both the same and opposite sex. 1 For more information on Marxist views of the media refer to Factsheet 066. Applying Marxism. Pluralist Views of Ownership and Control of the Media Liberal pluralists partially accept the Marxist view that the media reflects the common values of a society. However, they also believe that, since all societies will be diverse and complex and comprised of many different social groups, the media reflect these differences too. For example, whilst the dominant ideology suggests that white is the dominant ethnic group in Western societies, the fact that there is an ethnic minority population means that alternative views for these social groups will also be evident in the media. The images below show that, in Britain, there are women s lifestyle magazines targeted specifically at white women, black women and Asian women. Cosmopolitan targeted predominantly at white women (http://images.mirror.co.uk/upl/m4/ dec2008/2/2/21a30f2a-dd94- A24B-4811D238C6CDFA95.jpg) Ebony targeted at black women (http://www.ebonyjet.com/ currentissue/) Asiana targeted at Asian women (http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_71pkdqlmqt0/ttnm-7oxxai/ AAAAAAAAAB4/8UICy32uNIU/s1600/asiana.jpg) Liberal pluralists believe that mass media texts are highly competitive and diverse so there is not one, single message that dominates all media.
Activity Using the example of women s lifestyle magazines to help you, identify other similar media products that are targeted at different audiences. Think about television programmes for different age groups or radio shows for different religious groups. Support for Pluralist Views Free Media Western societies have a free media, which means there is minimal interference from the government over media content (as long as the producers work within the law). This means that producers, such as journalists, are able to present a range of views to the audience without fear of government interjections. The existence of new media technologies means that there are an everincreasing numbers of views being made available to a wider audience with small groups or even individuals being able to express their opinions During the London riots of August 2011, the Guardian website offered readers the opportunity to submit their own views as events unfolded. The audience was invited to share personal experiences and views of the looters and police For more examples of how new media technologies are used to express alternative views refer to Factsheets 050 We Media and Democracy and 071 Citizen Journalism. (http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/ 2011/aug/08/london-riots-lootingcrowdsourcing) Market Mechanisms The sole purpose of the vast majority of media institutions is to make a profit. In order to do this they must meet the needs of the audience; if the audience stops buying a product, it ceases to make a profit so will no longer be produced. This means that the audience determines the content of the media and media companies compete to satisfy the needs of the buying pubic. Even if there is bias in the media, it does not matter because it is the individual s choice to accept or reject the message. Big Brother, first produced by Endemol in 2000 for broadcast on Channel 4 and E4, is a good example of how audiences can influence which television programmes are made. In 2000, the series average viewing figure for Big Brother was 4.5 million viewers. However, by 2007, this figure had dropped to 3.9 million and continued to decline over the next two years to a low of 2.5 million in 2009. This led to Channel 4 announcing that Big Brother 11 in 2011 would be the last series. A pluralist would say the audience became disinterested in the show so stopped watching and, since Channel 4 could no longer make as much money, they cancelled it (http://static.guim.co.uk/guardian/ media/gallery/2009/jun/04/ bigbrother-reality-tv/bb10-group- LOGO-4923.jpg) Big Brother 10 s viewing figures were so low the show was cancelled the following year. Size of Conglomerates Many media institutions are massive conglomerates made up of many smaller businesses. It would be impossible for the conglomerate owner to oversee the daily running of all of the businesses they owns so they cannot have a direct impact upon the content and would be unable to ensure every product is only sending a single message which supports their ideology. According to the Fortune 500 list in 2011, The Walt Disney Company is the largest media conglomerate in the world in terms of revenue. It is comprised of hundreds of subsidiaries, including Walt Disney Pictures, Touchstone Pictures, Pixar, the ABC television network, the Disney Channel, ESPN sports network and countless websites such as clubpenguin.com. Since the year 2000, Bob Iger has been the president and CEO (Chief Executive Officer) of The Walt Disney Company. Pluralists would say that one individual, whilst in charge of the company, would find it impossible to oversee the products being released by every subsidiary of the entire organization. Bob Iger cannot know what is going on in every area of The Walt Disney Company at all times Bob Iger, President and CEO of The Walt Disney Company (http://cdn.mactrast.com/wp-content/ uploads/2011/11/bob-iger-1.jpg) 2
Support for Pluralist Views Continued Access and Interactivity Since the advent of traditional media technologies like television, the audience has had a right to reply. The development of new media technologies means that it is even easier for audience members to tell producers what they like and dislike about a product. Audiences can even create their own media products with an alternative message in response to those they do not agree with. When an American teenage girl took offence at the lyrics of Lady Gaga s song Judas she created a YouTube video that expressed her distain. Ssarahrooneyy s video has subsequently been viewed over two and a half million times and has even prompted responses from Lady Gaga fans who liked the song. Whilst it is unlikely that Lady Gaga herself has seen the videos (though not impossible since she has such an active online presence on Twitter), the disagreement over the music video led to a story appearing in the free London newspaper, the Metro. Pluralists would see this exchange of views as evidence that everyone s voice can be heard in the media. ( http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=gngexnhlyd4&feature=feedwll) (http://www.metro.co.uk/music/862531-lady-gagas-judasmusic-video-divides-fans-on-twitter) Laws The majority of British media is selfregulated. The Press Complaints Commission s Code of Conduct gives guidelines for the press to follow (including content on the internet) and Ofcom regulates the content of the broadcast media (television and radio). However, there are laws that impact the content of the media and aim to ensure it offers a range of views that are fair and balanced. The House of Commons standard note on party election broadcasts (PEBs) outlines the rules that ensure all eligible political parties have fair access to the media around election times. Since there is a ban in Britain on political advertising, PEBs are the only way politicians can access nationwide media. The BBC and all terrestrial channels (ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5) have to carry PEBs as part of their licence to broadcast agreement. http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=q0qfvxw1e5q&feature=related) There are strict rules to ensure a single party does not get more access than the others. Up until 2010, there were three main parties in England, namely Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats. The largest of those three, Labour and Conservative, were allocated five broadcasts each with the Liberal Democrats getting four. Any other party with eighty-eight seats in parliament could have one broadcast so even minority groups could access broadcast time. Each PEB was limited to approximately five minutes so that all parties had equal coverage. Scale of Media The sheer volume of media products available means that there has to be a product to suit everyone and no single group or message can dominate High street shops such as WH Smiths and supermarkets like Tesco stock a wide range of magazines, often taking up entire aisles of the store s floor space. Depending upon the size of the shop, there can be a vast range of different products for sale including different lifestyle magazines and specialist magazines on topics ranging from hobbies to political views. Pluralists would say this is evidence that the audience have access to many different viewpoints, some of which will undermine aspects of the dominant ideology. 3 There are hundreds of different products available for audiences to choose from. (http://benross.net/images/ blog%20images/10-02- 17_cleveland/20.JPG) Media products are like pick and mix sweets, audiences choose the ones they like and leave the ones they do not like. (http://www.cocklemoor.co.uk/userimages/ shop%202%20029.jpg)
Support for Pluralist Views Continued Limited Impact of the Media: Whale (1977) claimed that bias in the media is the result of audience preference and people get the media they want. His research concluded that there is little evidence that being exposed to a variety of media messages can have any impact on individual s views. The media cannot convert people to accepting alternative views as most people only consume media that reinforces views they already hold. Lazarsfeld (1954) called this minimum effects and claimed that pre-existing views create a barrier to new ideas. Therefore, audiences choose the messages they like and these will usually support their existing thoughts. Lazarsfeld s research was focused upon voting behaviour and he concluded that political media generally reinforces existing (http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qi1grwfyn-k/s0cvtormqoi/ biases as audiences are selective AAAAAAAAB9A/87PzAAu7SeU/s1600/-body-snatchersposter.jpg) about the media they consume. Political advertising, and party political broadcasts in Britain, do not change individual s views but rather reinforce them as they agree with the messages in support of their chosen party and ignore or ridicule those from opposing parties. A contemporary example of this would be how Conservative billboard adverts were defaced or manipulated online to mock the party by people who did not support Conservative views. Rather than making people think about all viewpoints, the campaign just reinforced negative views of the party for those who were negative towards them anyway. The original message on this advert was We can t go on like this. I ll cut the deficit, not the NHS. The website MyDavidCameron.com allowed people to insert their own slogan. This one makes reference to the impersonal way some people felt Cameron spoke and the heavily airbrushed image used in the campaign. Activity Choose one supporting view of pluralism metioned previously. Think of another example that supports the view and that refers to specific media texts, institutions or events. Try to make your examples as up to date as possible. Exam Hint:- Liberal pluralism is a view of the media as a whole so, unlike theories such as Marxism and feminism, it cannot be applied to a single text easily. When applying this concept you should refer to either a supporting or opposing view and explain how your chosen case study or text fits into that view. Use the examples on this Factsheet to help you construct suitable ways of using liberal pluralism in your exam. Opposition to Pluralist Views When thinking about liberal pluralism it is important to consider criticisms of the view. The criticisms focus on the lack of real choice for audiences and the power of media owners. Despite there being a plethora of media products available, which pluralist would claim represents a wealth of choice and a variety of ideas and messages, critics claim this is merely the illusion of choice. There are hundreds of television channels available via Freeview, cable services such as Virgin Media or from satellite providers like Sky, but the vast majority of the content is the same: reality television, quiz / game shows and repeats of programmes which have aired many times before. There is no real choice and the limited types of programmes support the dominant ideology. For example, most quiz or game shows offer cash or material prizes thus supporting capitalism. In addition, the audiences are not able to choose the products they consume and they have to make do with what is offered to them. If a black woman living in a predominantly white area wanted to read a lifestyle magazine targeted at black women but it was not stocked by her high street news agents, she is likely to buy a lifestyle magazine targeted at white women instead. Whilst this may not be what she wanted, she has to be satisfied with what is available or have nothing. More dissident views that undermine or go against the dominant ideology are even harder to access easily and many have ceased to be produced. For example, Spare Rib, a feminist magazine that was first published in 1972 ceased in 1993. Pluralist would say this is because women are not interested in feminism but an alternative view would be that they do not have the opportunity to be interested if the products are not easily available. Many media theories, including Marxists, see the size of conglomerates and the concentration of ownership as a massive problem. Whilst it is true that a single owner is unable to oversee the day to day running of every aspect of a media institution, that person can choose to employ people, such as editors and producers, who they know will enforce their desired ideology for them. This can be seen in the example of News Corporation s founder, chairman and CEO, Rupert Murdoch s influence over his employees. 4
During the Leveson Report, which is an inquiry into the use of phone hacking and police bribery by journalists working for several British tabloid newspapers, many former employees have spoken of the work practices used at News International (the British newspaper publishing subsidiary of News Corporation). For example, Bruce Guthrie, a former editor of Herald Sun, a newspaper based in Melbourne, Australia, said of Murdoch: Essentially Rupert is this hard-driving proprietor who pushes all his editors for more sales, bigger stories, he wants bigger splashes and he puts his editors under enormous pressure to deliver on that. Another former employee who was not identified by name claimed that Murdoch would routinely telephone the newspaper s editor to ask them about the stories being worked on. He would get his editor to run through the list of stories reporters were chasing, critiquing them one by one. When he eventually heard a story he liked he would make his interest apparent and that story would become a main candidate for the front page. Guthrie went on to say: I was astonished how some editors would almost factor in Rupert even though he was 12,000 miles away, Guthrie said. You could almost see them thinking, what will Rupert think of this?. Bruce Guthrie, former employee of Rupert Murdoch. (http://resources1.news.com.au/images/2007/08/16/va1237262247265/bruce-guthrie-5613809.jpg) In addition, much has been made of the close relationship Murdoch shares with Rebekah Brooks, the former editor of the News of the World. Some newspapers have referred to her as his fifth daughter and have claimed that she acted as a spokesperson in his absence. In a case such as this, the owner is having a direct control over the content of the media whether by being personally involved in decision making on a day to day basic or by employing people to take on that role for them. Exam Hint:- Use newspaper websites, such as www.guardian.co.uk and www.bbc.co.uk/news to keep up to date with case studies that can be used as examples in the exam. You can apply pluralist ideas to any large, media conglomerate. For example, as mentioned above, the ongoing Leveson inquiry offers lots of personal views of media practices that undermine pluralist views. You can use these events to ensure you have case study examples that show you really understand liberal pluralism. Acknowledgements: This Media Studies Factsheet was researched and written by Helen McDonald Curriculum Press. Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU. Media Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136 5