THE AFRICAN GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT INDEX MAURITIUS REPORT

THE AFRICAN GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT INDEX MAURITIUS REPORT 2017

National Consultant Dr Ramola Ramtohul, Senior Lecturer in Sociology and Gender Studies, University of Mauritius. National AGDI Research Team Mrs Mohini Bali, Head, Gender Unit, Ministry of Gender Equality, Child Development and Family Welfare. Mr Aveenash Appadoo, Ag. Head Planning and Research Unit, Ministry of Gender Equality, Child Development and Family Welfare. Mr Dharsing Pothegadoo, Statistician, Ministry of Gender Equality, Child Development and Family Welfare.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The African Gender and Development Index (AGDI) Report for Mauritius is the first index the country has ever produced to measure gender equality and women empowerment in the country. In 2016, Mauritius joined other African countries in Phase 4 of the AGDI which was first introduced by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) in 2004 to measure the gap in the status of African men and women and to assess the progress made by Governments of African countries in implementing the gender policies. This report measures the status of women as compared to men in the economic, social and political spheres and the progress government has made in implementing regional and international gender instruments. It is expected that the African Gender and Development Index Report for Mauritius will enable government, civil society organisations, development partners and the private sector to implement and support programmes that will reduce gender gaps. The findings of the AGDI report show that the country has made significant strides towards gender equality and women s empowerment and compliance with the relevant international standards. There is, however, a need for strong political will and collective effort by all spheres of government and key stakeholders to achieve gender equality in Mauritius. The study presents the findings under the Gender Status Index (GSI) which is a quantitative assessment tool that examines gender mainstreaming in terms of social power, economic power and political power. The African Women s Progress Scoreboard (AWPS), on the other hand, evaluates women s progress in terms of various indicators of gender equality as outlined in the assessment tool. Mauritius does well for the social power block in the GSI with a score of 1.033 whereas the figure is lower for economic power at 0.656 and lowest for political power with a score of 0.333. Gender inequalities are therefore most pronounced in the political power block, and are of a lesser extent in the economic power block. For the subcomponents included in the education sector in the social power block, all have high scores that are above 1 1.131 for enrolment, 1.004 for completion and 1.009 for literacy. The total score for the education component is 1.048, thereby indicating that gender inequality is not an issue. In terms of economic power, the second block of the GSI contains indicators on income, time use, employment and access to resources. The indicators for the subcomponents of wages and income are 0.663 and 0.984 respectively, highlighting the persistence of gender inequality especially with regard to wages. For the sub- i

components time-use and employment, the indicators are 0.560 and 0.777 respectively, revealing that gender inequality is significant in these sectors. For the sub-component of management, the indicator is 0.476, highlighting the existence of major gender inequality in this sector. For the AWPS, the score of Mauritius is high with regard to the ratification of international treaties and conventions and legislation concerning women s rights. Areas that require attention include sexual offences, especially rape. This is confirmed by the lower scores of 37 and 67 percent respectively. Mauritius obtained 65 percent for women s access to land. This is an area where there was a lack of gender-disaggregated data, especially concerning land ownership. Moreover, for gender mainstreaming, the score obtained is 70 percent. Government has initiated the process of gender mainstreaming across departments and a National Steering Committee on Gender Mainstreaming is operational. It provides a forum for exchange of views and discussions on current and emerging gender issues and the identification of gender gaps and proposed remedial actions. For the variable on support for women s quotas and affirmative actions, Mauritius has a score of 75. This reflects the findings of the GSI, where women s representation in positions of power remains at a lower level. ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... i TABLE OF CONTENTS... iii LIST OF TABLES... v ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS... vi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION... 1 1.2 THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN MAURITIUS... 3 1.3 THE AFRICAN GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT INDEX... 7 1.4 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH... 9 CHAPTER 2: THE GENDER STATUS INDEX... 15 2.1 INTRODUCTION...15 2.2 SOCIAL POWER...16 2.2.1 Education... 16 2.2.2 Health... 24 2.3 ECONOMIC POWER...26 2.3.1 Income... 26 2.3.2 Time use and employment... 29 2.3.3 Access to resources... 35 2.4 POLITICAL POWER...37 2.4.1 Public Sector... 37 2.4.2 Civil Society... 42 CHAPTER 3: THE AWPS - WOMEN S RIGHTS... 44 3.1 CEDAW...44 3.1.1 Article 2... 44 3.1.2 Article 16... 47 3.1.3 Optional Protocol... 51 3.2 PROTOCOL TO THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN AND PEOPLE S RIGHTS ON THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN IN AFRICA...52 3.3 BEIJING PLATFORM FOR ACTION...54 3.4 SOLEMN DECLARATION ON GENDER EQUALITY IN AFRICA...58 3.5 AFRICAN CHARTER ON THE RIGHTS AND WELFARE OF THE CHILD...61 CHAPTER 4: THE AWPS - SOCIAL POWER... 64 4.1 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN...64 4.1.1 Harmful practices... 65 4.1.2 Review and modification of customary law... 67 4.1.3 Domestic violence... 69 4.1.4 Rape... 73 4.1.5 Statutory rape or defilement... 74 4.1.6 Sexual harassment at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere... 78 4.1.7 Protocol to the Suppression and Punishment of Trafficking in Persons especially Women and Children... 81 4.1.8 Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography... 84 4.1.9 Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict... 87 4.2 HEALTH ICPD PROGRAMME OF ACTION...88 iii

4.2.1 HIV/AIDS... 88 4.2.2 Maternal Mortality... 90 4.2.3 Family Planning... 92 4.2.4 Safe Abortions... 94 4.3 EDUCATION...98 4.3.1 Policies to prevent and protect female dropouts... 98 4.3.2 Education on human/women s rights... 101 CHAPTER 5: THE AWPS - ECONOMIC POWER... 102 5.1 ILO CONVENTIONS... 103 5.1.1 Convention 100 on Equal Remuneration, 1951... 103 5.1.2 Convention 111 on Discrimination, 1958... 106 5.1.3 Convention 183 on Maternity Protection, 2000... 110 5.2 EQUAL ACCESS TO RESOURCES... 114 5.2.1 Engendering National Poverty Reduction Strategies (NPRS)... 114 5.2.2 Access to Agricultural Extension Services... 119 5.2.3 Access to Technology... 121 5.3 LAND RIGHTS... 125 CHAPTER 6: THE AWPS - POLITICAL POWER... 128 6.1 UN RESOLUTIONS 1325, 1820, 1888 AND 1889 ON WOMEN, PEACE AND SECURITY... 128 6.2 PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN TRADITIONAL GOVERNANCE... 130 6.3 POLICIES... 130 6.3.1. Gender mainstreaming policy in all government departments... 130 6.3.2 Support for a women s quota and affirmative action... 133 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS... 137 REFERENCES... 140 iv

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Gender Disaggregated Human Development Indicators for Mauritius (2015 figures except where indicated otherwise)... 5 Table 2: Human Development Indicators for Mauritius (2015 figures)... 6 Table 3: The Gender Status Index for Mauritius... 10 Table 4: The African Women s Progress Scorecard for Mauritius... 13 Table 5: Gross Enrolment Rates (%) by sex, Republic of Mauritius (2014)... 17 Table 6: Enrolment in tertiary institutions by sex (2015)... 18 Table 7: Enrolment in tertiary education by level and sex (2015)... 18 Table 8: Enrolment in tertiary education by field of study (2015)... 19 Table 9: Youth Participation in youth programmes by gender... 21 Table 10: Youth participation in school National Games by gender - 2016... 22 Table 11: Evolution of high-level athletes by gender - 2016... 23 Table 12: Youth Participation in Jeux des Jeunes - 2016... 23 Table 13: Number of income earners by sex... 27 Table 14: Average monthly income (Rs) by sex and selected sectors (2015)... 28 Table 15: Average monthly income from employment by occupational group and sex (2015)... 28 Table 16: Average time spent by category of activities and sex (2003)... 29 Table 17: Levels of employment by sex... 30 Table 18: Employed population by industrial sector and sex... 32 Table 19: Level of employment in the agricultural sector... 33 Table 20: Levels of unemployment by sex... 34 Table 21: Unemployment rate (%) by sex and age group... 34 Table 22: Unemployed population by educational attainment and sex... 35 Table 23: Distribution (%) of employed persons by employment status and sex (2014)... 36 Table 24: Share of employers and own-account workers by sex (% of total)... 36 Table 25: Number of members of Parliament by sex... 37 Table 26: Number of cabinet ministers by sex... 38 Table 27: Number of high positions held in government by sex... 38 Table 28: Members of the police force by sex (2010 2015)... 39 Table 29: Staff of the Mauritius Police Force (2014 & 2015)... 40 Table 30: Number judges and magistrates by sex... 41 Table 31: Elected Members at Municipal Council Elections... 41 Table 32: Senior positions in political parties in 2017... 42 Table 33: Senior positions in trade unions, employers associations and NGOs.. 43 v

ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS AGDI APRM ART AWPS BPfA BTW CCPP CDU CEDAW CEP CRC CSEC CSR DCP DPP ECA EOC ERiA FAREI GEWE GII GNI GSI HDI IBBS ICPD ICT ILO MACOSS MAIFS MDGs African Gender and Development Index African Peer Review Mechanism Anti-Retroviral Therapy African Women s Progress Scoreboard Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action Back to Work Programme Community Child Protection Programme Child Development Unit Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women Community Empowerment Programme Convention on the Rights of the Child Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children Corporate Social Responsibility Decentralised Cooperation Programme Director of Public Prosecutions Economic Commission for Africa Equal Opportunities Commission Employment Rights Act Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute Gender Equality and Women Empowerment Gender Inequality Index Gross National Income Gender Status Index Human Development Index Integrated Biological and Behavioural Surveys International Conference on Population and Development Information and Communications Technologies International Labour Organisation Mauritius Council of Social Service Ministry of Agro Industry and Food Security Millennium Development Goals vi

MEHRTESR MEPZ MFARIIT MFC MFPWA MFSGGIR MGECDFW MHL MLIRET MOFED MOHQL MSIEE MSSNSESD MTCI MYS NAC NAP NCB NEF NWC NWEC PoA SCPSWCD SDG SDGEA SM SRM STIs TEC UN Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research Mauritius Export Processing Zone Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Regional Integration and International Trade Muslim Family Council Mauritius Family Planning and Welfare Association Ministry of Financial Services, Good Governance and Institutional Reforms Ministry of Gender Equality, Child Development and Family Welfare Ministry of Housing and Lands Ministry of Labour, Industrial Relations, Employment and Training Ministry of Finance and Economic Development Ministry of Health and Quality of Life Ministry of Social Integration and Economic Empowerment Ministry of Social Security, National Solidarity and Environment and Sustainable Development Ministry of Technology, Communication and Innovation Ministry of Youth and Sports National AIDS Committee National Advisory Panel National Computer Board National Empowerment Foundation National Women s Council National Women Entrepreneurship Council Platform of Action Special Collaborative Programme for Support to Women and Children in Distress Sustainable Development Goals Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa Statistics Mauritius Social Register Mauritius Sexually Transmitted Infections Tertiary Education Commission United Nations vii

UNDP WHO WIN United Nations Development Programme World Health Organisation Women in Networking viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION The Republic of Mauritius, which is located in the South West Indian Ocean, includes the Islands of Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agalega, Tromelin, Cargados Carajos and the Chagos Archipelago, including Diego Garcia and any other island comprised in the State of Mauritius. The main island of Mauritius is of an area of 1,865 sq. km. Mauritius experienced a wave of different colonisers, including the Dutch, French and finally the British before becoming independent in March 1968. Mauritius was entirely populated by migrants who came from France, mainland Africa, Madagascar, India and China. Mauritius now has a culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse population. Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain was the Head of State until 1992 when Mauritius became a Republic. There exists a parliamentary democracy led by the Prime Minister as the Head of Government. The Head of State is the President of the Republic who is elected by a majority of all members of the Assembly on a motion made by the Prime Minister. The President is Her Excellency Dr. Ameenah Gurib-Fakim, G.C.S.K., C.S.K., PhD., DSc who is the first lady to have acceded to this post. The executive authority vests in the President of the Republic. However, the President must act in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet or of a Minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet except in cases where he is required by the Constitution to act in accordance with the advice of, or after consultation with, any person or authority other than the Cabinet or in his own deliberate judgment. The President appoints as Prime Minister an elected member of the National Assembly who, in her own deliberate judgement, appears to her to be able to command the support of the majority of the members of the Assembly. The State of Mauritius holds free and fair national and local elections at regular intervals. The conduct of these elections is supervised by an independent Electoral Supervisory Commission. The National Assembly consists of 70 members of whom 62 are elected in accordance with the first-past-the-post system and the remaining 8 are allocated seats from among the best losers at general elections on a communal and party basis. Government is in the process of consultation with the main political parties on the reform of the electoral system. 1

The National Assembly is presided by a Speaker. Mauritius has for the first time since its independence a lady Speaker, Honourable (Mrs) Santi Bai Hanoomanjee, G.C.S.K, MP. In 2002, provision was made for a decentralized form of Government in the island of Rodrigues by setting up the Rodrigues Regional Assembly which is responsible for the formulation and implementation of policy for specified matters in relation to Rodrigues (such as agriculture, child development, employment, environment and tourism). Regional Assembly Laws may be adopted in relation to those areas of responsibility. Members of the Rodrigues Regional Assembly are elected by citizens of Mauritius who are residents of Rodrigues. The judicial system in Mauritius is largely inspired by British traditions which advocate the adversarial system of litigation. It consists of the Supreme Court, the Intermediate Court and the District Courts which all have jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters as well as the Industrial Court which hears industrial disputes. The Supreme Court has unlimited jurisdiction to hear and determine any civil or criminal proceedings. In addition, under section 82 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court has jurisdiction to supervise any civil or criminal proceedings before any subordinate court and make such orders as it considers necessary. The Supreme Court also has an appellate jurisdiction whereby it can review the decision of one of its own judges sitting at first instance or those of subordinate courts. Final decisions of the Supreme Court are subject to appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council on matters of great general or public importance and in other circumstances laid down in the Constitution. Mauritius has achieved sustained growth since independence. This has enabled the country to achieve the status of an upper middle-income country, implement a comprehensive social policy to eradicate extreme poverty, and build a welfare state. It protects vulnerable social groups, and provides the people with free and universal access to health and education at all levels (from pre-primary to higher education). There is a basic pension benefit for the elderly, disabled persons, widows and orphans. There are also income support programmes, free public transport and subsidised consumer products. Although cases of extreme poverty are rare in Mauritius, relative poverty nonetheless persists in the country. In fact, the welfare state has benefited the Mauritian population without distinction. In addition, there has been a noticeable progress on measures of human development, including life expectancy, maternal and infant mortality, school enrolment measures, and access to primary education for both genders. Mauritius is in fact one of the few African countries that has accomplished remarkable 2

results on the MDG indicators in just 15 years, with six of eight specific goals more or less achieved. 1.2 THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN MAURITIUS During colonial times and the immediate period following independence, the legal status of women in Mauritius was inferior to that of men and women were not entitled to the full exercise of all civil rights. After independence, successive governments have committed themselves to protect women s rights in the country and to improve women s standard of living and quality of life. Gradual changes were made to laws and policies, which led to greater equality between women and men and an improvement in the status of women in Mauritius. The universal welfare state ensured that women and girls had access to education, health services and pensions. Industrialisation in the 1970s, especially the setting up of the Mauritius Export Processing Zone (MEPZ) created employment opportunities for women from vulnerable economic backgrounds and with very basic education. The Constitution of Mauritius enshrines the right to protection from discrimination. Reforms in the laws of the country have ensured that women have the same legal rights as men. Pursuant to section 16 of our Constitution no person can be discriminated on grounds of: race, caste, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed and sex. Women and men also have the right to equal enjoyment of rights and freedom, including opportunities and responsibilities in the social, economic, cultural and political spheres (Task Force Report on Laws that are Discriminatory towards Women, 2001). Mauritius has ratified several international human rights instruments which also cover women s rights and are conducive to gender equality. Prominent among these is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which was ratified by Mauritius in 1984. Mauritius endorsed the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPfA) in 1995 and ratified the Optional Protocol on Violence against Women in 2008. Mauritius signed the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa in 2005 and signed the instrument of accession to the said Protocol in June 2017. The National Gender Machinery for Mauritius, namely the Ministry for Women s Affairs, Prices and Consumer Protection was set up in 1975, in the wake of the International Women s Year. It was replaced by a Women s Desk in 1977 and restructured in 1982 as a new Ministry for Women s Rights and Family Affairs, to provide a governmental institutional platform to address women s rights and 3

gender inequalities in the country. In 2010,the appellation of the Ministry was changed from Ministry of Women s Rights, Child Development and Family Welfare to Ministry of Gender Equality, Child Development and Family Welfare (MGECDFW), following the evolution in policy perspectives from women s rights and women and development towards gender equality. The Ministry has been spearheading legislative reforms, programmes and policy measures geared towards empowering women and promoting their safety and wellbeing, including that of their families. In 2008, Mauritius adopted a National Gender Policy Framework, which aimed at addressing discriminatory practices in various areas, articulating the BPfA together with the MDGs and other international commitments that the country has agreed to uphold. The MGECDFW has also set up a National Steering Committee in Gender Mainstreaming, to closely monitor the Gender Cell at the level of Ministries and evaluate the overall implementation of the National Gender Policy Framework (NGPF) with regard to progress made towards the formulation of their sectorspecific gender policies; and provide a forum for exchange of views and discussions on current and emerging gender issues and identify gender gaps and remedial actions. Taking into consideration the various difficulties faced by Gender Focal Points and respective Ministries, in terms of expertise, attendance at meetings and necessary budgets, to mainstream gender in their respective sectors, the Government of Mauritius, has for the first time, introduced in the Budget Speech of 2016/2017 the Gender Responsive Budgeting Initiatives on a pilot basis in five Ministries namely Youth and Sports; Civil Service and Administrative Reforms; Health and Quality of Life; Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research; and the Environment and Sustainable Development Division of the Ministry of Social Security, National Solidarity, and Environment and Sustainable Development (MSSNSESD). In order to sustain the Gender Responsive Budgeting Initiatives and keep the momentum gained following the sustained advocacy of the MGECDFW, the Government of Mauritius has, this year, extended the Gender Responsive Budgeting Initiatives to all Ministries. Furthermore, in a bid to give more impetus to the National Steering Committee on Gender Mainstreaming, regular meetings of the Committee have been held in 2017, whereby Gender Focal Points have been called upon to provide feedback on the status of gender mainstreaming strategies within their respective Ministries. Moreover, the MGECDFW is extending its support to Ministries to review their gender policy statements. In addition, the MGECDFW has organised several working sessions with Senior Officers of Ministries to raise awareness on the concept of gender and on the pertinence of incorporating a gender perspective during policy formulation, implementation, budgeting, monitoring and evaluation. 4

The National Women s Council under the aegis of the MGECDFW has been engaged in disseminating information on gender equality and gender issues in the country. Sensitisation campaigns take place in the network of Women Empowerment Centres across the island, including Community Centres. The MGECDFW also has the Men as Partners Programme and Working with Boys for Gender Equality programmes that target men and youngsters in the different communities to sensitise them on gender equality, challenge patriarchal attitudes and deep rooted stereotypes concerning the roles and responsibilities of women and men in family and society. The 2016 Human Development Report shows that the Human Development Index (HDI) for Mauritius was 0.781 in 2015. This figure puts Mauritius in the high human development category, positioning it at the rank of 64 out of 188 countries and territories (UNDP, 2017). This classification also highlights the significant progress the country has made on the economic and social fronts since independence. In fact, Mauritius 2015 HDI of 0.781 is above the average of 0.746 for countries in the high human development group and above the average of 0.523 for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (UNDP, 2017). Yet, despite the high HDI value, when the value is discounted for inequality, the HDI falls to 0.669, representing a loss of 14.4 percent due to inequality in the distribution of the HDI dimension (UNDP, 2017). Table 1: Gender Disaggregated Human Development Indicators for Mauritius (2015 figures except where indicated otherwise) 1 Indicator Male Female Human Development Index (HDI) 0.796 0.759 Estimated Gross National Income per capita (2011 PPP$) 25,539 10,540 Expected years of schooling (years) 14.8 15.5 Mean years of schooling (years) 9.5 8.8 Population with at least some secondary education (% ages 25 and older) 62 57 Labour force participation rate (% ages 15 and older) 74.9 46.8 Life expectancy at birth (years) 71.1 78.2 1 Source: UNDP Human Development Indicators for Mauritius, 2016. Available online at http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/mus.pdf. Accessed on 13.04.17. 5

The figures in Table 1 indicate that the HDI value for women is lower than that for men. Inequalities between men and women are also noted in Gross National Income (GNI) per capita and labour force participation rates. With regard to education, the figures are now higher for girls than for boys, largely due to the welfare state which provides free education to all children. In fact, girls are now outperforming boys in Mauritius. Table 2: Human Development Indicators for Mauritius (2015 figures) 2 Indicator Value Gender Development Index (GDI) 0.954 Gender Inequality Index (GII) 0.380 Maternal mortality ratio (deaths per 100,000 live births) 53 Adolescent birth rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19) 28.5 Share of seats in Parliament (% held by women) 11.6 The gender indicators reveal discrepancies between achievements of men and women. Mauritius has a relatively high Gender Development Index (GDI) at 0.954 3. The GDI is based on the sex-disaggregated HDI, defined as a ratio of the female to male HDI. Moreover, the Gender Inequality Index (GII) figure for Mauritius was 0.419 in 2014 and 0.380 in 2015, indicating increased levels of gender inequality 4. Mauritius was ranked 88 th out of 155 countries in the 2014 index whereas in 2015, it was ranked 82 nd. The GII can be interpreted as the loss in human development due to inequality between female and male achievements in the three GII dimensions. The figures therefore highlight the fact that gender inequalities are very much prevalent in contemporary Mauritian society. 2 Source: UNDP Human Development Indicators for Mauritius, 2016. Available online at http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/mus.pdf. Accessed on 13.04.17. 3 The GDI measures gender inequalities in achievement in three dimensions of human development: health (measured by female and male life expectancy at birth), education (measured by female and male expected years of schooling for children and mean years for adults aged 25 years and older), and command over economic resources (measured by female and male estimated Gross National Income per capita). 4 The GII reflects gender-based inequalities in three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment and economic activity. Reproductive health is measured by maternal mortality and adolescent birth rates. Empowerment is measured by the share of parliamentary seats held by women and men, as well as female attainment in secondary and higher education. Economic activity is measured by the labour market participation rate for women and men. 6

While Mauritius has made significant progress towards achieving gender equality on the legal front, the attainment of a situation of gender equity continues to be hindered by various factors. Prominent among these is the embeddedness of patriarchy in Mauritian society, such that the prevailing norms, values and culture constitute barriers to the promotion of and realisation of gender equity in the country. Moreover, the lack of expertise at the level of institutions, especially with regard to gender issues, has resulted in a slower implementation of gendersensitive policies, projects and activities (CEDAW, 2010). 1.3 THE AFRICAN GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT INDEX The African Gender and Development Index (AGDI) is an index designed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) and introduced in 2004, to measure the gap in the status of women and men in Africa and to assess the progress made by African governments towards implementing country gender policies. The AGDI incorporates the major international and African charters and conventions, including the MDGs. The AGDI has been constructed as a tool for women s empowerment and gender equality. It is based on an analysis of gender gaps and the underlying gender relations in Africa. Gender relations are in fact relations of social inequality. The AGDI will illustrate the level of inequality that exists between women and men by highlighting the gaps in the various indicators reviewed. Mauritius falls in the fourth phase of the implementation of the AGDI. The AGDI focuses exclusively on the African continent and is specifically an African index in three respects: (1) It takes into account the major African charters and documents that have a bearing on gender relations, (2) It identifies gender gaps in the selected power blocks and facilitates the review of the underlying gender relations in Africa and, (3) Its findings will be explicitly from African countries based on nationally available statistics. As such, the AGDI will provide African governments with comprehensive data and information on the status of gender equality in their countries and will indicate the extent to which gender policies adopted towards reducing the marginalisation of women have been effective. The AGDI will measure the gender gap between women and men irrespective of a country s level of socio-economic development, based on nationally available data. At the same time, the AGDI will democratize access to statistics and provide gender planners as well as NGOs with a monitoring tool that is reliable, valid and easy to use. 7

The AGDI is a composite index consisting of two components: (1) A Gender Status Index (GSI) (2) The African Women s Progress Scoreboard (AWPS). The Gender Status Index (GSI) is a quantitative assessment of women s social, economic and political power. The GSI aims to measure the differences in the achievements of men and women in specific sectors, including education and health (social power), income, time-use or employment and access to resources (economic power) and participation in the public sector and civil society (political power). Thus, the GSI covers those aspects of gender relations that can be measured quantitatively. It will produce a score of inequality based on the measurement of issues that are specific to women in Africa. The African Women s Progress Scoreboard (AWPS) complements the GSI. It is a qualitative measurement of the performance of African governments with regard to women s advancement and empowerment. The AWPS takes into consideration all major international and African conventions and charters that address women s concerns such as Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People s Rights (the African Women s Protocol), as well as the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Key issues examined by the AWPS include violence against, women, maternal mortality, reproductive rights, HIV/AIDS, women s land rights, women s rights to equal wages and access to new technologies and agricultural extension services. It also examines measures that African governments have or have not taken in relation to women s political agency. The AWPS presents a qualitative assessment of the social, economic, political and cultural rights of women. By assessing progress on a three-point scale, the AWPS enables a quantitative measurement of qualitative issues. The AGDI has been piloted in four phases across Africa. Mauritius falls in the fourth phase of the implementation of the AGDI and this is the first AGDI country report that has been prepared for Mauritius. 8

1.4 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH This is the first AGDI report for Mauritius. Data collection for the AGDI for Mauritius was driven by the MGECDFW that took the lead role in setting up the National Advisory Panel and managing the AGDI process. Dr Ramola Ramtohul from the University of Mauritius was hired as a consultant to guide the research and write the report. The National AGDI team consisted of staff from the MGECDFW, namely Mrs M. Bali, Mr A. Appadoo and Mr D. Pothegadoo. A one-day workshop was held on 1 st December 2016 where the AGDI process was launched in the presence of various stakeholders from ministries, parastatal organisations, who would constitute the National Advisory Panel (NAP). The workshop included training and an introduction of the AGDI process to members of the NAP. A participatory and inclusive approach was used and all members were expected to engage fully with the process. Data for both the GSI and AWPS was initially gathered through reviews of government reports, national statistics and relevant websites. UN documents such as country CEDAW reports and Human Development Reports were also consulted. Secondary data was supplemented with primary data obtained from the National Advisory Panel. A request for specific information was sent to different ministries that were part of the NAP. Where clarification was needed, this was sought through meetings, email and discussions held on the phone. Meetings were held with officers from various ministries to supplement the information that was sent. Draft sections of the AWPS were then sent to the relevant ministries for vetting. Ms. Pramila Patten then member of CEDAW Committee was also consulted. On 12 April 2017, the UN Secretary General has appointed, Ms. Pramila Patten, a Barrister at law, as his Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict at the level of Under-Secretary-General. Following the resignation of Ms. Patten, from the CEDAW Committee, the Government of the Republic of Mauritius appointed Justice Ms. Aruna Devi Narain to serve as a member of the Committee. The first draft of the AGDI report for Mauritius was circulated among members of the National Advisory Panel and a half-day working session was held on 28 th April 2017 to work on the scores for the AWPS. A revised draft was circulated among stakeholders and a validation workshop was held on 13 th July 2017 to validate the revised report. At the validation workshop members of the NAP requested for an extension for the submission of additional inputs. An extension was granted for the submission of additional inputs which were subsequently incorporated in the report. For a few indicators, data was not available because the information has not been compiled. This is due to the lack of relevance of these indicators for the country as Mauritius is moving towards the status of a middle-income country. 9

Table 3: The Gender Status Index for Mauritius Block Component Subcomponent Indicators Women Men Index Subcompo nent Compo nent Index Early childhood enrolment 95 94 1.011 Social Power - Capabilities Education Health Enrolment (%) Completion Primary enrolment rate (net) 99 97 1.021 Secondary enrolment rate (net) 74 70 1.057 1.131 Tertiary enrolment (gross) 5 56 39 1.436 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary 99.9 99.5 1.004 1.004 Literacy Literacy rate of 15-24 years old 98.6 97.7 1.009 1.009 Child Health Life Expectancy HIV/AIDS Stunting under 5 using minus 2 standard deviation Underweight under 5 using minus 2 standard deviation n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a Under five mortality rate 15.3 15.8 1.001 Life expectancy at birth 77.8 71.2 1.093 HIV/AIDS prevalence among 15-24 years old 0.16 0.14 1.000 Access to anti-retroviral treatment 45.2 52.2 0.866 Share of population without HIV (%) 99.68 99.02 1.007 1.001 1.093 0.958 1.048 1.017 1.033 Wages in agriculture 5100 12900 0.395 Economic Power - Opportunities Income Time-use and employment Wages (Rupees) Income Time-use (Minutes) Wages in civil service 6 27800 31200 0.891 Wages in formal sector (public and/or private) 12800 18200 0.703 Wages in informal Sector n.a n.a n.a Income from informal enterprise n.a n.a n.a Income from small agriculture household enterprise n.a n.a n.a Share of population under the poverty line (%) 10.5 9.0 0.984 Time spent in market economic activities (as paid employee, own account or employer) 116 296 0.392 Time spent in non-market economic activities or as unpaid family worker in market 1047 1071 1.023 economic activities Time spent in domestic, care and volunteer activities 277 73 0.264 0.663 0.824 0.984 0.560 0.668 0.656 5 Refers to the number of Mauritian students enrolled in tertiary education, irrespective of whether they are studying locally or overseas. 6 In the civil service, the policy of Equal Pay for Equal Work prevails. Recommendations of the Pay Research Bureau provide for the same salary scales for specific posts, whether occupied by women or men. 10

Employment Share of population in nonagricultural wages employment 41.0 59.0 0.695 Youth unemployment rate (%) 32.7 21.6 0.858 0.777 Access to resources Means of production Ownership of rural land/farms n.a n.a n.a Ownership of urban plots/houses n.a n.a n.a Ownership of livestock n.a n.a n.a Access to credit (commercial and micro-credit) n.a n.a n.a n.a 0.476 Employers 3400 17900 0.190 Management Own-account workers 19800 58300 0.340 High civil servants (class A) 4197 4667 0.899 Members of professional syndicates n.a n.a n.a 0.476 Political power - agency Public sector Members of Parliament 8 62 0.129 Cabinet ministers 3 21 0.143 Higher positions in civil service and parastatals 7 166 299 0.555 Employment in the security forces 8 1021 11099 0.092 Judges of higher courts 9 13 0.692 Judges of lower courts Judges of traditional and religious courts n.a n.a n.a Members of local councils 41 120 0.342 Number of male/female traditional rulers n.a n.a n.a 0.326 0.333 Civil Society Senior positions in political parties 2 20 0.100 Senior positions in trade unions 41 304 0.135 Senior positions in employers' associations 2 3 0.667 Senior positions in heads or managers of NGOs 113 248 0.456 Gender Status Index 0.674 Note: n.a. means that data is not available. 0.340 As indicated in Table 3, the GSI consists of three blocks: 1. Social power which measures human capabilities; 2. Economic power which measures economic opportunities 3. Political power which measures voice or political agency. 7 Figures include Senior Chief Executive (SCE), Permanent Secretary (PS), Directors, Managers and Ambassadors. 8 Staff of the Mauritius Police Force (including Special Mobile Force, National Coast Guard and National Security Services). 11

The components and sub-components of the three blocks are measured using relevant indicators. The GSI consists of 44 indicators divided into 7 components and 11 sub-components. The indicators receive equal weight within each subcomponent and component, therefore ensuring that the three blocks have the same weight in arriving at the GSI. The GSI for most of the indicators are calculated in the same way, namely by dividing the indicator for female achievement by that for male achievement for the particular variable. In the case of indicators which refer to numbers or shares, the share of women in the total value is used. However there are eight reverse indicators that do not follow the rule. These are related to health (stunting, underweight, mortality, prevalence of HIV/AIDS), income (share of women under the poverty line), time-use (non-market economic activities, domestic, care and volunteer activities); and employment (youth unemployment rate). The GSI for reverse indicators is calculated as: (1 Rw) / (1-Rm) Where Rw = ratio for women and Rm = ratio for men. If an indicator is missing, the other indicators of the sub-component are reweighted, to take account of the actual number of available indicators. Data for the indicators in the GSI has been collected from diverse sources including census reports, demographic and health surveys, labour force surveys, living standard measurement studies, and administrative reports. 12

Table 4: The African Women s Progress Scorecard for Mauritius Women s rights Social power - capabilities International and regional legal instruments on women s rights Violence against women and children Ratification Reporting Law Policy commitment Development of a plan Targets CEDAW, 1979 (Article 2) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 27 90 CEDAW, 1979 (Article 16) 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 22 73 Optional Protocol to CEDAW, 1999 2 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4 100 Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) on the Rights of Women in Africa, 2003 Institutional mechanism Budget Human resources Research Involvement of civil society Information & dissemination Monitoring & evaluation Capacity enhancement Accountability/ transparency 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 26 87 Beijing Platform for Action, 1995 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 27 90 Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa, 2004 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 26 87 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 26 87 Harmful practices: FGM; early/forced marriage; widowhood rites 2 2 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X 6 100 Review and modification of customary law 2 2 1 X X X X X X X X X X X X 5 83 Domestic violence 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 29 97 Rape 2 2 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 11 37 Statutory rape/defilement 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 1 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 20 67 Sexual harassment X 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 0 17 61 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons especially in Women and Children, 2000 Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, 2000 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 27 90 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 29 97 Total Percentage Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflicts, 2000 2 0 1 X X X X X X X X X X X X 3 50 13

Economic power - opportunities Political power agency Health - ICPD Plan of Action Education Employment Sustainable development (Article 19 of the Protocol to the ACHPR on the Rights of Women in Africa, 2003) NEPAD Framework Document, 2001 Peace and security Participation in decisionmaking Policies HIV/AIDS 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 30 100 Maternal mortality 2 2 X 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 28 100 Family planning 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 30 100 Safe abortions 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 28 93 Policies to prevent and protect female dropouts X X 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 0 1 2 2 2 1 21 81 Education on human/ women's rights X X 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 0 2 2 1 2 1 20 77 ILO Convention 100 on Equal Remuneration, 1951 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 27 90 ILO Convention 111 on Equal Remuneration, 1958 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 29 97 ILO Convention 183 Concerning Maternity Protection at the Workplace, 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 27 90 2000 Engendering national poverty reduction strategies to ensure that gender dimensions of poverty are taken into 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 30 100 account Access to agricultural extension services X X 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 24 92 Access to land X X 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 17 65 Access to technology 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 27 90 UN Security Resolutions 1325, 1820, 1888 and 1889 on Women, Peace and Security Participation of women in traditional governance 2 X 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X 4 100 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Gender mainstreaming in all departments 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 2 1 21 70 Support for women's quotas and affirmative action 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 X 1 2 1 2 2 2 0 21 75 Total score 689 85 14

CHAPTER 2: THE GENDER STATUS INDEX 2.1 INTRODUCTION As indicated in chapter 1, the GSI is a measure of relative gender equalities that captures gender related issues in a quantitative manner. The GSI is based on three blocks following Amartya Sen s division into capabilities, opportunities and agency (Sen, 1999). The three blocks are: social power, economic power and political power. Each block of the GSI is divided into different components, which are then sub-divided into a number of sub-components and then into indicators/variables. The various indicators receive equal weight within the particular sub-component and component. Moreover, the three blocks receive equal weight in the computation of the GSI. The components and sub-components of the three blocks are as follows: 1. SOCIAL POWER Education Enrolment Completion Literacy Health Child Health HIV/AIDS 2. ECONOMIC POWER Income Wages Income Time-use and employment Time-use Employment Access to resources Means of production Management 3. POLITICAL POWER Public sector Civil Society 15

This chapter provides information pertaining to the above-mentioned indicators in Mauritius. The data in Table 3 indicates that Mauritius does well for the social power block with a score of 1.033 whereas the figure is lower for economic power at 0.656 and lowest for political power with a score of 0.333. Gender inequalities are therefore most pronounced in the political power block, and to a lesser extent in the economic power block. 2.2 SOCIAL POWER The first block of the GSI social power includes indicators on education and health. The subcomponents for education all have high scores that are above 1 1.131 for enrolment, 1.004 for completion and 1.009 for literacy. The total score for the education component is 1.048, thereby indicating that gender inequalities are not an issue here. 2.2.1 Education Education is a major marker of social and economic progress in a country. It also demarcates the ability of individuals to access social and economic power. Moreover, education is a key indicator of the positioning of women and men in a country. Mauritius has achieved considerable progress in education following the establishment of the welfare state that provided free education to children since 1977. The provision of free education at all levels boosted enrolment rates for girls and removed previous discrimination against girls with regard to access to higher education. Since 2005, education has become compulsory up to the age of 16. Pregnant students are also allowed to attend school including after delivery. The government provides free transport by bus to all students to attend school and university. Primary school children are given free textbooks whereas failures from primary school are integrated into a prevocational programme to ensure that they can enrol in vocational programmes eventually (MFARIIT, 2015). Mauritius is currently moving towards a new education system with nine years of continuous basic education cycle that will create a solid foundation for success at the end of the compulsory education period till age 16. In the existing system with 6 years of primary schooling followed by 7 years of secondary schooling, while there is near universal enrolment at both pre-primary and primary levels, a high transition rate to the secondary level and gender parity in school enrolment, there is a significant gap in the level of pupil learning. Some students drop out during the early years of secondary education, with an estimated 28 percent of prevocational students failing to make it to the end of that programme (MEHRTESR, 2016). Many children fail to acquire a minimum level of learning achievement, with a high percentage of 15 year olds not reaching the international threshold of basic skills level. This has resulted in Mauritius not comparing favourably with its peer upper middle income countries (MEHRTESR, 2016). The new system aims to 16

ensure that all children successfully complete the basic education cycle and then move on to upper secondary via different pathways, namely general, vocational, or technical. This would then open avenues leading to further education and/or tertiary education. Mauritius has already achieved MDG Goal 2, which is to achieve universal primary education. This has been the result of sustained commitment by several governments since independence towards maintaining investment in education and creating enabling policy and legislative frameworks (MFARIIT, 2015). Boys and girls are equally likely to go to pre-primary and primary schools. In 2014, Mauritius had a literacy rate of 98.1 percent among the population aged 15-24 years (MFARIIT, 2015). The 2011 census data indicates minimal disparity in favour of girls for the literacy rate of 15-24 years old, which is 98.6 for girls and 97.7 for boys (SM, 2012). The Gender Parity Index (GPI), which measures the relative education participation of boys and girls, was 1.0 for both pre-primary and primary, thereby indicating no disparity. In terms of enrolment rates, the figures indicate a higher trend for girls, except for pre-primary education where the rate is equal. Nonetheless, the figures in Table 5 and 6 indicate that boys and girls have equal access to education. Table 5: Gross Enrolment Rates (%) by sex, Republic of Mauritius (2014) 9 Gross Enrolment Ratio Male Female Total Gender Parity Index Pre-Primary (4-5 years) 98 98 98 1.0 Primary (6-11 years) 97 98 97 1.0 Secondary (12-19 years) 78 82 80 1.1 At the end of primary schooling, girls generally perform better than boys at the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE) examinations. In 2014, the pass rate for girls was nearly 80% against 67% for boys. Consequently at secondary level, girls are more likely to be enrolled than boys. The transition rate, i.e. the proportion of pupils stepping from primary level to secondary level in 2013 was around 88% for boys and 92% for girls. Secondary enrolment (academic stream) for both girls and boys increased over time but with a gap that favoured girls. The Gender Parity Index (GPI) in secondary enrolment, which measures the relative access to secondary education of boys and 9 Statistics Mauritius (2015). 17