: Reform and Reaction

1855 1881: Reform and Reaction Large but economically undeveloped ratio 11:1 village to town dwellers. 85% illiterate peasants. Most serfs belonged to Mirs where elders regulated strip farming. Serfs used for manual labour and masters owned them. They had no rights. Autocratic Tsar ruled Russia, head of Russian Orthodox Church and had God given powers, edicts were law and could choose own advisers Crimean War 1885 as Alexander II comes to throne. War had bad influence on Russia as a whole as it was humiliated by Britain and France, forced to withdraw all military presence from anywhere near the Crimea even though some in Russia. Russia needed change, bad weapons and communications, mainly subsidised serfs who lacked knowledge. Highlights need for reform Russia covered ⅙landmass of the world Alexander turned to people in 1855 and asked Nobility to release serfs and in 1859 still no change so Tsar does it himself in 1851 Many terms to emancipation even though they were technically free: redemption payments, weren t looked after by masters anymore as up to own devices BUT didn t blame Tsar, saw his an holy person. Also masters unsatisfied as given tiny payments. More unrest in 6 months after than before emancipation. Emancipation: agriculture unproductive, Crimean War, military reforms (90%) Russia's economy spent on war. Wanted industrial reform as weapons bad compared to Britain. Tied to Mir so couldn't industrialise, didn t like change, unrest Reforms: 1864 Zemstva, 1863 censorship (only censored after publication) (1865 press allowed to discuss gov policies), military reform, education (more relaxed but led to liberal and marxist critical ideas), judicial reforms (jury + judges appointed for life) independent powers from Tsar forming but other political parties illegal 1864 Russian army vast but poorly equipped and consisted of peasants, so decided to thin out and train better with reserves, army punishment banned, timing fell from 25 to 6 (9) years, class bias still present but better OVERALL all reforms were to help the Tsar, not the people, to strengthen autocracy and improve support and make Russia great again, emancipation backfired on serfs and masters, main help to Nobility as although serfs may like Tsar, they couldn t vote for him so it made no difference, no fantastic reforms but small print annoyed many, but did job and strengthened autocracy Impact on society: 1881 assassination of Alexander II by People s Will after several attempts of life and withdrawn reforms, boosted support of revolutionaries, people thought change coming but replaced by son Reaction to new Tsar: revolt in Poland problem = 50% of Russia were not Russian, so if let poland go, many other minorities would too Alexander II wife had TB, son died, so started retracting reforms and put in ministers to help Reforms were okay no major revolution like in 1900s, but by death 1881 of father Alexander III learned lesson followed by period of no reform and just repression Carrying documents of constitutional monarchy to give more freedom when shot and no support for People s Will, people actually liked the Tsar Liberal Alexander II, inclined toward social reforms, want to work with system contrasting with conservative who didn t want change

1881 1904: Political reaction, social and economic change Alexander III clamped down on all opposition groups and refused any hope for reform, very conservative, wanted to prove Russia industrially social and economic change mainly economic but have to have social too, 1887 1892 Ivan Vyshnegradsky finance minister tried to create state capitalism, indirect taxation, and import tariffs (made Russian goods more expensive than Russian goods), 1877 tax 12% of value, 1892 = 33% (almost doubles) wanted to increase grain imported we will go hungry but we must export and forced starving peasants to sell grain, led to 1892 Famine, boosted economy, secured foreign loans in 1888, 1864 exporting 26mil tonnes of grain and by 1880 86mil tonnes + railway, 1964 moneylenders main sort of domestic loan, 1894 France invested heavily in Russian economy because of Franco Russian alliance in 1894 2nd finance minister Sergei Witte 1892 1903, followed in footsteps, believed industrialisation for progress and drove for growth, great spurt (railway) 1891 04, 1855 700 miles of track but in 1881 14,000 miles built (done by making guarantees to investors strengthened economy. Reuble backed by silver which meant constant flux, so Witte backed it in gold which created a more stable economy which got other investors. Foreign experts came, more jobs, invested heavily in trans siberian railway. 1890s gone up 56,000km half being tran siberian. Coal, iron, oil prioritized over textiles large factories boosted, foreign involvement 26% 41% Costed gov and Russia became dependant on foreign investment, annual economic growth rate 8% (huge), biggest industry textiles, promise of regular wage and decent income which drew in serfs, working in factories, workers doubled but only 750,000 moved to siberia and stayed Railway development multiplier effect stimulating other industries Opposition: Most liberal politicians very happy with Zemstva but still wanted western system to hold up system and have democratic regime but didn t get that Russification and discrimination Alexander III s reign named golden age because of economic boom (8%) but very anti reform after father, 1882 tightened censorship, 1884 education reform poorer students excluded, 1890s zemstva limited budgeted, land captains introduced in 1889 (almost had control of zemstva), russification imposed language upon non russians but led to discrimination in baltic states, jewish discrimination banned jews from living outside of cities unless jewish villages, in army max 6% of jews, used them as scapegoat of anger towards Tsar, 1890s many jews fled Tax of serfs Famine 1892 and blamed on Vyshnegradsky because of law which meant he stepped down, only way to get money through tax which fell to peasants so tax on vodka and candle wax (important to peasantry) Change in countryside 1870s 1914 population of serfs double which intensifies pressure on resources, everyone gets half as much, needed to invest but too poor, rich nobility in decline bad news for tsar, zemstva strong hold of liberals 1894 Nicholas II comes to power (idiot) industry booming so cities had huge workers but became slums with high inflation low wages, no health, no running water Universities celebrated but seen as excessive and were disciplined, students radicalised, working class new and could be used against gov, secret police Okhrana, need trade unions, gov sets up trade unions which conflict with employers but tsar like employers so paradox Students more radicalised, serfs struggling in famine and taxes, liberals pleading for parliament Opposition to tsar mostly peasants but now trouble developing, working class given voice Rise of marxist party, social revolutionaries, social democrats

Liberals 1905 union of national liberations attempt to get peaceful change moderates dominated by Nobles (have nothing to lose) and radicals dominated by intelligentsia (middle class formally educated and views of wanting rid of tsar or having share of power) and joined more extremist groups Revolutionaries SRs, descendants of populists students who decided to go to peasantry and told them they were screwed over but peasants didn't care and some arrested based model of serfs and working class, had same ideas as peoples will, 1890s terrorism grand duke sergei assassinated feb 1905 wanted to base power of village commune. Russian social democrat party marxist 1898 led by Plekhanov, lenin and martov, constantly under police watch, produced illegal newspaper called the spark, organised meeting in london 1903, 1903 split into 2 parties but unofficial until 1912, lenin believed head revolutionaries should lead and be head of party vs martov visions of congress, about the people and what they want but lost and lenin won supporters bolsheviks 1904 1906: Russian revolution Russo Japanese War 1905 both wanted to expand in same place and clashed, caused devastating effects and people hated tsar, Russia lost heavily and baltic fleet (best) defeated in 24 hours by Japanese navy 1905 Jan 6th bloody sunday (peaceful demonstration by Father Gapon who wanted more liberal reforms, not against tsar just wanted him to end war, but tsar shot at them) tsar lost any hold of working class and massacre fueled further unrest and students encouraged workers, strikes (railway) spread and troops unmoved, peasant unrest, gov losing control (June 1905 battle of tonkin mutiny) development in st petersburg, soviet, chairman = (marxist and revolutionary) Leon Trotsky which leads to nerve and more strikes. Troops cannot help because railway out of action. Shooting own people and losing control, workers of state bank call for constitutional assembly, by end of 1905 Nicholas hanging by thread Sergei Witte: 1903 resigned as finance minister but called back to negotiate treaty of Portsmouth to end war, gave him position of power and authority, gave 2 options to tsar: establish literary dictatorship, wasn't man for job OR accept constitutional change. Coalition between marxist and tsarist who want parliament united by need for change but natural opponents October Manifesto issued with states constitution grants it as well as civil liberties and civil rights, people should now have basic rights, state duma elected by universal male suffrage to make laws, the tsar now must share his power (reluctant), only does it because of pressure, refuses to recognise he is no longer an autocrat Effects: short term opposition split in 2, liberals (satisfied with october manifesto) and marxists (wanted elimination of tsar), serfs repressed by army and tsar managed to survive well even though much opposition, bourgeoisie lessened pressure on tsar, sep 1905 employers sympathising with workers and even subsidising them but in oct condemning strikes start to get troops back from far east, end of redemption payments, peasant unrest begun and tsar helps them but they see it as weakness, peasantry land hungry between nov 1905 and spring 1906 things escalate, troops return and Stolypin governor (nickname of stolypin's necktie because he hung of many people) Peter Danylov appointed minister of interior, lenin surprised by revolution since exhales and tried to come back but too late, uprising in moscow defeated by troops which brought confidence to tsar Spring 1906 first duma, political parties legal, tsar managed to control radical groups, Stolypin installed secret military courts, hung 2000 court marshalls (oppressed radical groups)

Between april 1905 and meeting of first duma 1906 revolution wasn't real, not coordinated, collection of large events, no 1 cause, army stayed loyal, used to repress, opposition was divided, more relaxation of reforms and introduction of trade unions brought in 1906 1914: Tsarist regime Work of Dumas, agrarian reforms, Stolypin, economical development, conditional Russia 1914 Duma fundamental to reforms included council of ministers and initiated all improvement, led by prime minister also appointed by tsar, state council debated laws and approved the, half appointed by Zemstva and half by tsar, state Duma, over 500 ministers, elected every 5 years with men over 25 First Duma dissolved fairly quickly because of radical ideas that weren't good for tsar, fundamental laws meant he still maintained control made 23rd April 1906 confirmed tsar held supreme autocratic power, power to initiate legislation and approve laws, right to dismiss ministers and command armed forces, right to dissolve duma, power to rule by decree these laws clearly undermined power of Duma by giving tsar means to ignore it (tsar dissolved first 2 dumas) but Stolypin prime minister introduced illegal electoral law which changed voting to the Duma, in favour of tsar s supporters, Duma eliminated workers to large extent and (people who disliked called them duma or lards) more cooperation as result and third duma lasted full term 1907 1912, gov put forward legislation and Duma approved 2200 (cooperative but also rejected 300 and full of tsar supporters) land captains seen as old and replaced with justices of the peace 1912 social insurance movement actually beneficial to country, but some say mere rubber stamp, dominated by octobrists who were cooperative with government, but if rubber stamp why would they reject legislation. Stolypin said Duma was good because it was a sounding point for government, they knew what the country was thinking some representation of everyone. Change of ideas, gov old fashioned and did need new ideas and duma gave that Agrarian reforms As promised in 1905 redemption payments abolished jan 1907 and peasants unable to leave villages and apply for permission to consolidate strips of land into farm holding, more state and land given up more from tsar so serfs could have more, new peasant land bank to fund purchases and encourage investment, gov also subsidised migration so they could set up own farms (serf ownership of land increased from 20% 1905 to 50% 1915, grain production rose but 56mil tonnes in 1900 to 90mil tonnes in 1914, by 1909 Russia world leading cereal exporter, peasant kulaks bought out other farms to create better ones, around 3.5mil peasants moved from overpopular areas to siberia creating major agricultural region for dairy and cereals, some sold up and moved to towns to find work increasing industry BUT although land organisation mission established, bureaucracy involved made procedures slow, 1913 1.3 out of 5mil complications dealt with, 1914 only 10% land transferred from communal to private ownership, 1914 90% of peasant holdings still based on scattered strips of land but reluctant to change farming methods, some tried to hold onto land which made it difficult to divide up common land without disputes over owners, poorer serfs lost all land and descended into depo hardship debts, some of which to old or too rooted in community to search for other work, siberia difficult terrain, stolypin reforms didn t address key issue and land hunger continued, created a class of kulaks (barrier of reform had something to lose) Wanted rid of stolypin but conservatives in court undermined him, nicholas twisted in mind against stolypin, stolypin prime minister and head of gov, even though preserving autocracy relationship

became frayed (navy reform scrapped) wanted national reaching of zemstvo and stolypin lost confidence and cold relationship. Stolypin assassinated (arguably greatest minister) 1908 clash between Russia Austria Serbia (vs Austria but they do nothing as Austria allies with Germany) But if Russia mobilises Germany will fall (came up with plan go at France and then at Russia) Was said by 1915 railways would be complete so pressure on Germany 1914 Russia outbreak of war, duma established, no significant reform because of Okhrana, lenin exiled, regime stable, cooperation from dumas, legal bias, sr survived and wide circulation of newspapers, stolypin's necktie, support base for regime narrow, clashes with ministers, 1909 economy booming again 7% annual growth, health insurance schemes introduced for workers, trade unions representation tolerated showing stability, 1912 strike in lena goldfield ending in bloodshed, july 1914 over 1mil on strike in major cities, troops brought in but no serious clash, economic growth averages 8%, 5th largest industrial power, more based on internal rather than foreign investment, agrarian reforms, growing slower that other countries, only 10% land used and farming methods still backwards, july 1914 WW1 Opposition SRs try to educate serfs, terrorism, 2000 deaths of tsarist officials. Bolsheviks (SDs) split 1903, okhrana infiltrated groups successfully, 1908 on of leaders was a double agent executed, 1914 bolshevik agents, radical opposition. Lenin in difficulty, mensheviks had more supporters even though bolsheviks had majority, lenin lost control of Russian Iskra and bolsheviks made more minority, problems with lenin and personality, 1906 7 bolsheviks tried to get back with mensheviks and lenin powerless, revolt 1910 criticising lenin's unreasonable ideas, 1912 SD conference with majority of bolsheviks, 1912 formal split, industrialisation kicked off. 1905 8400 members roughly same amount for each party, 1906 30,000 bolshevik members and 18,000 menshevik members, then police cracked down 1910 and only 10,000 for all parties, workers looked more towards trade unions, 1914 all major trade unions came under bolshevik influence including metal workers union, could have been due to newspapers which sold 14,000 per day, leaders in exile and others police agents Social 85% increase in primary school provision 1905 1914, increase in literacy rate, welfare reforms, trained unions, huge support for tsar, only 55% kids in education, lena goldfield strike, advances slow, for every rich serf = poorer serf, dispute of Rasputin and Alexandra 1914 1917: WW1 and the revolution July 1914 Nicholas faced with option of either back down or mobilise army, russian credibility on line after previous wars, schlieffen plan (Germans attack French), more russia mobilises less chance it works, Aug 1914 Russia entered WW1, France under severe pressure and russia advances in East, germany bing troops back, see opportunity, messes up russians using radio communications uncoded (germans listening) 1917 russia defeated by germans at tannenberg, 1915 plan failed and germany offensive, advance into poland, 1915 Tsar makes decision to relieve uncle as commander chief, no longer scapegoat, march 1916 Russia driven back, described as worst battle of entire war as lost 100,000 men, june 1916 Brusilov offensive advance 60km at expense of Austria (Pyrrhic victory) 1mil men wounded, opposition naturally aimed to shoot officers first which left intelligentsia, recruits needed so less training and unloyal army, when war broke out they had 4.7mil rifles but called up over 5mil men (idiotic) 1915 french ambassador told that almost ⅓of men had no rifles, loss of respect for gov, food rotted before it got to troops, 1916 spending half as much as in 1913 but got landlords and intelligentsia to pay more, printed masses of money which cause inflation, 1913 1917 prices rose by 400%, 20% less food in markets, peasantry kept more

food, queuing for 8 hours for bread (per loaf) national emergency but Nicholas STILL wouldn t share power, Okhrana Oct 1916 produced report saying conditions appalling, 750,000 working days lost due to striking, initially about food and then turned to removing of tsar, serfs enjoying high prices of food but shortage of labour as many in army, basics dear, loved ones dying, over 300 attacks Russia needed a head of state but Tsar had gone to front line leaving them leaving Alexandra and Rasputin, Tsar asked to gain confidence of people but replied that they should gain his confidence (Nicholas starts to get shitty with his people) 1915 5 difference ministers of interior, 3 different war ministers, 4 different agricultural ministers no consistency of any policies (ministerial leapfrog)tsarist unpopular as German and accused of being a spy? Affair with Rasputin common knowledge which lost respect from people (Famous case of rasputin going on top a tower and swinging his dick around saying this controls all of you?????????) members of Romanov family seriously contemplating removing Nicholas from power, 1914 Duma rallied around gov creating huge war budget looking for constitutional monarchy loss of support in government Liberals lost, people that ended revolution lost, criticism of Tsar, Duma set up provisional committee to help war victims, Zemstva also attempted to nationally help, union of zemstvos, non gov bodies doing gov work meaning there s institutions who don t need the tsar, 1915 large number of duma unhappy with how it s run, right wing routes most loyal and upset and start protest, call for new gov embrace ideas of kerensky but ignores, nov 1916 open criticism of gov, Rasputin assassinated dec 1916 by members of nobility and Alexandra v upset February revolution 1917 caused because of deterioration of living standards, prices of goods and land issues, dumas ignored by nicholas, ministers replaced, okhrana said it was at boiling point February 14th tsar dissolves duma, feb 22nd metal unions leaves people on streets in demonstration, 23rd international women's day and bolsheviks call for women to come out on strike and get response, 90,000 by end of day striking, escalates to down with the war, down with the tsar, food shops looted, 24th more demonstrations 2000, too many for police, 240,000 later on, complete shutdown and mix of political views, tsar informed of severity, duma members need to be in national gov but Nicholas tells them to use army General Khabalov makes clear troops in st petersburg unreliable because only recently conscripted, Kolaks reliable, one killed a policeman and pulled authority into question, 26th troops ordered to shoot in streets, shots fired but then some turn guns on police, 27th full mutiny shooting officers, within 2 days 170,000 troops had joined demonstration and red flag of socialism put up over the palace showing that Nicholas II had lost his capital, fill it with new form of gov, provisional government (temporary) tsar travels back and telegrams flood in telling his what has happened and he is forced to abdicate on march 2nd in hope his brother will take up power but he won't and romanov dynasty finally overthrown New authorities dual power leadership provisional government and soviet of workers and soldiers, provided more democratic gov and offered support until new gov brought in. Dual power leadership weakened both because neither could do serious change as had to refer to each other first, abolished death penalty (clearly by soviet) as prov gov against it. Civil liberties, abolition of legal restrictions based on class, amnesty for politicians and religious prisoners etc, independent judges, self dependant army, imprisonment of tsarist officials, expanding of Okhrana, independence for Polish, other nationalities awaited constituent assembly. Mixed takes on these changes, serfs had initial enthusiasm which turned into frustration in the absence of any official land redistribution which is what they wanted, workers uhappy. Provisional government based with decisions to make or break: continuation of war naturally liberal instincts is to continue it but people are sick of it (but they continued it anyway which made

them deeply unpopular), peasants seizing land and nobody to stop them, serfs saw it like they could take it back later when they had resources and should let serfs keep it for time being, peasants also deserting front to get to land army breaking down. (order 21) 1914 when war broke out the left wing were divided, they supported war despite usually being against, mensheviks supported and only ones who didn't were bolsheviks, and when tsar fell lenin tried to come back from exile, germans helped him as he would undermine war efforts, comes back in april 1917 in sealed train carriage funded by germans, Stalin released and sent to st Petersburg, supporting prov gov and marxist says 2 revolutions lenin furious because when workers revolution may come naturally in years to come, he won't be there to lead it??? April theses no cooperation with prov gov, all power to soviets, bolsheviks slogan peace, bread, land Lenin saying serfs left out, so sticks land in there to apply to peasants. Prov gov in trouble made up largely of kadets, SD in favour of war, mensheviks and SRs divided between peace and support of war, many benefits as never supported war and numbers rise feb 1917 10,000 members july 1917 75,000 but support in cities. March april 1917 365,000 troops desert from front, 237 villages serfs get noble estates in 1917. Food shortages, production collapses, farmers selling less food and blame on prov gov, lenin provided alternative. April theses also inspired revolutionary events in july july days ( everyone turning to lenin and saying lead us but he was unprepared and said no) opportunity to exile again seen as german spy and sent to Finland, soldiers armed fired on police and arrested, kornilov affair on general kornilov who revolted with army, said he was protecting city and gov panicked and called on soviet to help (40,000 men and weapons) but put gov in bad position and looks weak for asking for help, lenin comes back, kornilov coup aug 1917, kerensky ordered army units in, military committee, bolsheviks went big, 10th oct, lenin won vote to replace prov gov, military council gained control over red guards, 24th oct kerensky arrested bolshevik leaders but they made their move and 8,000 overtook city, kerensky fled and other officials had secret meeting at the palace, oct 24th bolsheviks broke into winter palace (defended by women?) October 24th 1917 provincial government falls, revolution in charge and Soviet russia about to begin! DONE