Author(s) Heaney, Dennis S. Title Burma assessing options for U.S. engagement Publisher Monterey California. Naval Postgraduate School Issue Date 2009-06 URL http://hdl.handle.net/10945/4748 This document was downloaded on March 14, 2014 at 07:22:03
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA THESIS BURMA: ASSESSING OPTIONS FOR U.S. ENGAGEMENT by Dennis S. Heaney June 2009 Thesis Advisor: Second Reader: Anna Simons Brian Greenshields Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited i
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REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188) Washington DC 20503. 1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE June 2009 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE Burma: Assessing Options for U.S. Engagement 6. AUTHOR(S) Dennis S. Heaney 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA 93943-5000 9. SPONSORING /MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) N/A 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED Master s Thesis 5. FUNDING NUMBERS 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY REPORT NUMBER 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government. 12a. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited 13. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words) This thesis will provide a background look at Burma s recent history from World War II to present day to examine how the current state of affairs came about in the country. Burma s diverse ethnic groups and the nearly continuous insurgencies since World War II will be analyzed relative to a short period of democracy (following British colonial rule) from 1948 to 1962, to repressive military rule from 1962 to today. This thesis examines how Burma s military juntas have retained internal control in the face of insurgent and prodemocracy movements. Burma s geographic location, between the rising powers of India and China, its abundant natural resources, its drug trade, and the government s human rights abuses, all make the country important to United States foreign relations in Asia. This thesis will look at the current U.S. policies toward Burma and explore possible Burmese policy options for the U.S. in the future. The thesis will conclude with recommendations for future policy based on the research to determine if the United States can effect change in Burma. 14. SUBJECT TERMS Burma, Counterinsurgency, Ethnic Minorities, Pro-democracy movement, Natural resources, Western sanctions, Regional partners, Human rights abuses, Drug trade, U.S. Engagement 15. NUMBER OF PAGES 111 16. PRICE CODE 17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF REPORT Unclassified 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE Unclassified 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACT Unclassified 20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89) Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18 UU i
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited BURMA: ASSESSING OPTIONS FOR U.S. ENGAGEMENT Dennis S. Heaney Major, United States Army B.S., University of Washington, 1985 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN DEFENSE ANALYSIS from the NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL June 2009 Author: Dennis S. Heaney Approved by: Anna Simons Thesis Advisor Brian Greenshields Second Reader Gordon H. McCormick Chairman, Department of Defense Analysis iii
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ABSTRACT This thesis will provide a background look at Burma s recent history from World War II to present day to examine how the current state of affairs came about in the country. Burma s diverse ethnic groups and the nearly continuous insurgencies since World War II, will be analyzed relative to a short period of democracy (following British colonial rule) from 1948 to 1962, to repressive military rule from 1962 to today. This thesis examines how Burma s military juntas have retained internal control in the face of insurgent and pro-democracy movements. Burma s geographic location, between the rising powers of India and China, its abundant natural resources, its drug trade, and the government s human rights abuses, all make the country important to United States foreign relations in Asia. This thesis will look at the current U.S. policies toward Burma and explore possible Burmese policy options for the U.S. in the future. The thesis will conclude with recommendations for future policy based on the research to determine if the United States can effect change in Burma. v
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TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION...1 II. III. BURMA OVERVIEW...7 A. INTRODUCTION...7 B. GEOGRAPHY...7 C. RESOURCES...9 D. DEMOGRAPHICS...9 E. STATES, DIVISIONS, CAPITAL...9 F. ETHNIC GROUPS...10 1. Burman...10 2. Mon...11 3. Karen...12 4. Shan...13 5. Kachin...14 6. Rakhine (Arakanese)...15 7. Chin...17 8. Karenni...17 9. Chinese and Indians...18 G. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND...19 1. Bagan, Taungoo, Konbaung Kingdoms...19 2. British Colonization...20 3. World War II Japanese Occupation...21 4. United States, British, And Burmese Allies...22 5. Independence...23 6. Burma s Initial Independent Government...25 7. Ne Win s Coup...26 8. Ne Win s Government...27 9. Ne Win Steps Down...29 10. National Democracy Movement and the Rise of the SLORC...30 11. SLORC Policies...31 12. SPDC Assumes Power...32 H. CONCLUSION...32 COUNTERINSURGENCY...35 A. INTRODUCTION...35 B. INTERNAL SECURITY THE REGIME S PRIORITY...36 C. COUNTERINSURGENCY DEMOCRACY VERSUS AUTHORITARIAN RULE...37 D. INSURGENCY IN BURMA...38 E. COUNTERINSURGENCY IN AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES...40 F. BURMESE COUNTERINSURGENCY THROUGH COERCION...41 G. SLORC/SPDC S NEW STRATEGY...43 H. RESOURCE CONTROL...45 vii
IV. I. INTELLIGENCE IN BURMA...46 J. JUNTA INTELLIGENCE...48 K. OTHER METHODS OF SOCIAL CONTROL...49 L. MILITARY LOYALTY...51 M. EXTERNAL THREATS...52 N. DIPLOMACY...52 O. CONCLUSION...53 RESOURCES, DEVELOPMENT, AND REGIONAL/INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCE (POST-1988)...55 A. INTRODUCTION...55 B. THE SLORC S TRANSITION FROM NE WIN S SOCIALISM...55 C. RESOURCES AND TRADE...56 1. Natural Gas...56 2. Tourism...58 3. Teak and Hardwood...59 4. Gems...60 5. Fishing...60 D. FOREIGN ENGAGEMENT...61 1. China...61 2. Thailand...63 3. India...65 4. Japan...67 5. Bangladesh...68 6. Singapore...69 7. European Union...70 8. ASEAN...71 E. CONCLUSION...72 V. CONCLUSION...75 A. UNITED STATES SANCTIONS...75 B. LEGITIMACY AND SOVEREIGNTY...77 C. THE UNITED STATES AND BURMESE SOVEREIGNTY...78 1. Indirect Approach...78 2. Future Engagement in Burma...79 3. Nuclear Intervention...80 4. Pandemic Intervention...80 D. FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS...81 LIST OF REFERENCES...83 INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST...97 viii
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Map of Burma...8 ix
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Anna Simons for her support throughout this process. She provided excellent guidance, insight, and encouragement. I truly appreciate her professional dedication, and this thesis would not have been possible without her. I also thank Col Brian Greenshields for his leadership and mentorship throughout my time at NPS. Thank you also to COL Richard Thomas, Chief of Staff at Special Operations Command Pacific for coordinating an interview with a former Defense Attaché to Burma. I appreciate the Defense Attaché s providing background information and sharing his insight on Burma. I would also like to thank COL (Ret.) Tim Heinemann for taking his time to explain the inner workings of Burmese politics and ethnic conflict; it was truly valuable. Finally, thanks to my family for their support and patience during the writing of this paper. xi
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I. INTRODUCTION The crisis between the United States and Burma arising from the actions and policies of the Government of Burma, including its engaging in largescale repression of the democratic opposition in Burma, that led to the declaration of a national emergency on May 20, 1997, and its expansion on October 18, 2007, and April 30 2008, has not been resolved. These actions and policies are hostile to the U.S. interests and pose a continuing unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States. 1 George W. Bush May 16, 2008 In May 2008, President Bush publicly identified that the policies of the Government of Burma as a threat to the national security of the United States. Considering the gravity of this statement, it would seem that immediate and aggressive action on the part of the United States toward the ruling Burmese junta would have been warranted and was imminent. However, the United States confirmed what it has done for the past 20 years, which is to rely on economic sanctions to influence the Burmese Government to adopt more democratic and humane policies towards its people. Yet, the reality is that U.S. (and Western nations) sanctions have not eliminated or reduced the ruling junta s repressiveness of its people. Given that sanctions have had little impact on Burmese Government policies, this thesis addresses how authoritarian military governments in Burma have managed to gain and maintain power through brutal counterinsurgency measures, co-opting the opposition, and developing regional relationships which have shielded the regime from international influence. The present military regime in Burma has been in power since 1988. Following severe crackdowns on Burmese pro-democracy movement in that same year, and the subsequent national election in 1990, the results of which would have put the military out of power, Burma s military leaders nullified the election and resumed control of the 1 George W. Bush, Continuation of the National Emergency with Respect to Burma (110 th Congress, 2d Session, May 16, 2008) House Document 110-113. 1
country. Prior to 1988, Burma was ruled by the dictator Ne Win who grabbed power in a coup in 1962. Then as now, Ne Win subjected the people of Burma to harsh treatment in order to maintain his grip on power. For 47 years, the Burmese have been subjected to authoritarian rule and have lived in fear of forced relocation, and violence from military and police actions. During this period, the country s military rulers have consistently underdeveloped the economy. The country has large deposits of natural gas and oil, which have not been tapped to benefit the people. Despite so much natural resource potential, Burma ranks in the top ten of undeveloped states and has become the second largest producer of illicit opium in the world (behind Afghanistan). 2 Burma s current military leaders have little interest in promoting a legitimate state or the well-being of their citizens. They are instead driven to retain a firm grip on power and to increase their personal wealth. To remain in power they have relied on strong internal population control measures, periodically purging the military and intelligence services, and recently turning to building ties with powerful neighbors to ensure security and expand their wealth and holdings. The ruling junta seems unconcerned about Western diplomacy, economic pressure, or the suffering of its people. This was made evident in the wake of Cyclone Nargis in 2008. Following Nargis, the Burmese leaders refused aid from Western nations despite an estimated 138,000 Burmese killed or missing, and as many as 2.4 million people affected by the cyclone with half that many in need of assistance. 3 Clearly, the regime was willing to deny access to Western nations and sacrifice the well-being of its citizens in order to minimize its exposure to the world, and to deny access to Western nations. Yet, despite the Burmese government s fear of Western intrusion, the junta has not been totally isolationist. The government has benefitted from investment and business generated by international corporations operating in the country. The junta has 2 Lianna Sun Wyler, Burma and Transnational Crime. Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2008): 4. 3 IRIN, Myanmar: UN Reports Improvement in Cyclone Cooperation. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, http://www.irinnews.org/ (accessed August 18, 2008). 2
also prioritized expanding trade with rising industrial neighbors, China and India and, in the past decade, has even strengthened ties with long time rival Thailand. Burma joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1997 and thereby expanded relations with the more prosperous countries in Southeast Asia. 4 All of this suggests that Burma sees how it can expand its economy without the West, though the regime s paranoid leaders appear somewhat hesitant to allow large-scale foreign involvement in Burma even by non-westerners. Despite the lure of foreign investment from India and China, the junta remains centered on its main objective; to maintain internal control. Burma is ethnically diverse, with over 100 languages spoken by a total of 55 million people. Insurgent movements among the ethnic minorities in Burma have been present since the colonial days of British rule in the nineteenth century. Ongoing and present-day insurgencies involve both minority ethnic groups along the borders and the majority pro-democracy movement located in Burma s populated areas. Geographically, Burma is a country with a central river basin opening up to the Indian Ocean to the south, and surrounded in horseshoe fashion by hills and mountains bordering India and Bangladesh in the west, with China to the north and northeast, and Thailand and Laos to the east. The junta has focused the Burmese Army on quelling the numerous insurgencies that have created problems, but never posed a decisive threat to the regime. To weaken these movements, the Burmese government has used various techniques from forcefully relocating minority ethnic peoples and destroying their villages to brokering cease-fire agreements and offering concessions to insurgent leaders in exchange for their cooperation. Apart from these insurgencies on the country s peripheries, the junta has also run up against pro-democracy movements demanding free elections and an end to authoritarian rule. Since 1962, several pro-democracy protests have been put down harshly by the Army and police, the most recent being the 2007 Saffron Revolution by Buddhist monks. The monks were subdued only after hundreds of protestor deaths. 4 Michael Green and Derek Mitchell, Asia s Forgotten Crisis; A New Approach to Burma, Foreign Affairs (2007), 149. 3
Historically, Burma s pro-democracy movements have originated in the larger interior cities and have attracted little support from the ethnic groups on the country s borders. The lack of a unified effort between insurgent and pro-democracy movements in Burma has eased the government s efforts to crush its opposition and retain control. It might seem hard to imagine given communications today that Burma does not feel more threatened by international exposure of its repressive ways. The Burmese government has recognized a need to control the flow of information into and out of the country by limiting internet and cell phone use throughout Burma. However, despite its efforts, the junta has had an increasingly difficult time controlling information flows as telecommunication technology improves. During the Saffron Revolution, for instance, video imagery captured violence by the military against the protestors. Burma has been reprimanded on numerous occasions by the United Nations for repressive actions. It is no secret that the Burmese Government uses harsh and cruel methods on its people. Yet, beyond announcing sanctions, no outside actors have made moves to dispossess or displace the government. As one of the world s top producers of illegal narcotics, Burma may not technically pose a direct security threat outside its borders. Indeed, despite the rhetoric used by the U.S. and the UN to call for an end to the junta s repression and human rights abuses, Burma s sovereignty remains intact. One of the few actions that could cause this to change might be Burma s pursuit of a nuclear program. In 2007, Burma and Russia signed an intergovernmental cooperation agreement to establish a nuclear studies center in Burma, which will include a light water-moderated nuclear reactor. 5 Presumably, if Burma goes on to then pursue a nuclear weapons program that could grant the country a status similar to that of North Korea or Iran, both of which use the threat of nuclear weapons development as a bargaining chip when dealing with the United States. Of course, developing a nuclear program could also backfire on Burma, as the specter of Burma turning into a nuclear security threat could lead to more direct intervention by the U.S. But for now, Burma has not crossed any thresholds that warrant 5 Paul Kerr, Russia, Burma Sign Nuclear Agreement, Arms Control Today, June 2007. 4
direct intervention by any one country. Paradoxically, because Burma poses no immediate direct threat it becomes challenging for critics to develop courses of action, apart from sanctions, that might directly affect the regime. It is difficult to exert influence on Burma when the rulers continue to line their pockets with revenue derived from international corporations operating in the country. Businesses, which are motivated by profits, turn a blind eye to atrocities committed by the junta. Burma also is shielded from the full effect of U.S. sanctions by its immediate neighbors who are interested in trade and resource exploitation. Consequently, Burma s rulers have little incentive to change their policies, particularly when they do not need the U.S. or the West for protection, trade, or as an outlet for their exports. However, this does not mean there are not certain steps the U.S. could take to indirectly apply pressure. This thesis will touch on what these are. Meanwhile, what can the U.S. learn from its experience with Burma thus far? The thesis will explore answers to other questions as well. Chapter II will provide an overview, to include a brief description of Burma s geography, people, and history focusing on the post-world War II period to the present. This chapter will describe how Burma s geography and settlement patterns have created conditions for the separation of ethnic groups and impeded unified efforts by the opposition to put pressure on the government to change. Chapter II will also trace the political evolution of Burma after the departure of the British, when Burma briefly experienced democracy before the advent of military rule. Chapter III will examine the control measures the junta has imposed to thwart insurgent efforts and the pro-democracy movements. Burma s counterinsurgency measures have been effective against multiple insurgent movements and the regime has maintained an aggressive program of relocation, intelligence gathering, and human trafficking to undermine the insurgents. This chapter will also look at the government s involvement in the drug trade. In Chapter IV, I will examine how the Burmese government has maintained national sovereignty despite its repressive policies. This chapter will consider how the 5
government has tapped into natural resources to build up foreign currency trading with countries that overlook human trafficking, human rights abuses, and environmental degradation. Chapter IV will discuss Burma s involvement with multinational corporations, its neighbors, the European Union, and ASEAN, and the effect these interactions have on Burma s ability to retain its cruel policies. The Conclusion will investigate possible options for the United States. I will describe the sanctions currently in place against Burma and their effect on the junta. I will then consider two variants of engagement. First, are there incentives the U.S. can use to sway the regime toward more moderate policies? Second, are there any military measures that the U.S. would want to use to create reform? Meanwhile, if regime change is possible, what are some of the immediate and long-term challenges a new government would face in such an ethnically and politically divided country? The thesis will conclude with a set of policy recommendations and a cautionary note. 6
II. BURMA OVERVIEW A. INTRODUCTION Burma is a country not in the forefront of international reporting. The ruling junta has intentionally isolated Burma from the world and directed most of its efforts toward keeping tight control of its population. Because of its seclusion, Burma does not receive a great deal of notoriety outside of Asia, and therefore the country remains a bit of a mystery to Westerners. This chapter will provide a brief background of Burma s geography, history, and demographics to serve as a backdrop for the topics discussed in subsequent chapters. B. GEOGRAPHY Burma is a country largely shaped by its geography. In area, it is about the same size as France and Belgium combined. 6 Situated between India, China, and Thailand, Burma covers 240,000 square miles marked by a rugged horseshoe of mountains surrounding the central Irrawaddy plain. 7 The Irrawaddy River is the largest river in Burma, but it is flanked by several other rivers (Sittang, Salween, and Chindwin - which drains into the Irrawaddy) which flow south from the mountains, to create a fertile basin in the middle of the country prior to emptying into the Indian Ocean. Opening up to the Indian Ocean to the south, Burma s coastline stretches almost 1200 miles across the Bay of Bengal with numerous accessible ports, most notably in the Irrawaddy River Delta. 6 Burma Geography, http://www.rothwell.force9.co.uk/burmaweb/geography.htm/ (accessed February 18, 2009). 7 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change (London: Minority Rights Group International, London, 2002), 6. 7
Figure 1. Map of Burma 8
C. RESOURCES Burma has traditionally exported natural resources such as jade and teak and was the world s largest exporter of rice in the early twentieth century. More recently, oil and natural gas have dominated the extracted resources Burma sends abroad. D. DEMOGRAPHICS The Burmese are mainly Buddhist (89% of the population). The remainder of the population is mainly split between Christians (4%) and Muslims (4%) with animists and other religions comprising the rest (3%). 8 Burma s rulers generally were of Burman ethnicity and divisions between Burmans and minority groups have existed throughout the country s history. With a population of close to 52 million people, Burma is one of the poorest nations in Asia despite its wealth of natural resources. 9 E. STATES, DIVISIONS, CAPITAL Burma is divided into states and divisions per the 1974 Constitution. The seven states Kachin, Sagaing, Chin, Rakhine, Shan, Kayin, and Mon are inhabited by the larger minority ethnic groups and occupy the Burmese border to the west, north, and east. These states are generally in the hilly and mountainous areas and are difficult to access, which is one reason why the Burmese Government has struggled to keep tight control on the states ethnic inhabitants. The seven divisions (largely inhabited by Burmans) are Yangoon, Ayeyarwady, Bago, Magway, Mandalay, Tanintharyi, and Sagaing. 10 These divisions are located in the interior of the country where the government exerts and can exert greater control over the population. The capital of Burma until 2007 was Rangoon. In 2007, the ruling junta constructed a heavily fortified and isolated capital area farther into the interior of the 8 US State Department, Burma, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm/ (accessed March 1, 2009). 9 CIA, The World Fact Book-Burma, http:// www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/bm.html/ (accessed February 19, 2009). 10 The terms Burman and Burmese are used in their traditional British context. Burman refers to the majority ethnic group in the country while the term Burmese refers to all peoples of the country of Burma. Burmese, however, is also the language spoken by the Burman ethnic group. 9
country, at Naypyidaw near the township of Pyinmana. The geographic division of the country and relocation of the capital highlight some of the core problems facing the modern Burmese. Namely, that Burma is a nation that is sharply divided along ethnic lines and ruled by a self-serving and paranoid military junta. F. ETHNIC GROUPS The complexity of life in Burma is reflected in its ethnic divisions which have long impacted politics in Burma. The majority Burman ethnic group makes up almost two-thirds of the population. The predominant minority ethnic groups consist of the Mon, Shan, Rakhine, Kachin, Karen, Kayah, and the Chin who occupy the periphery states of the country. The ethnic groups described below are not all the ethnic groups there are in Burma. Many sub-ethnic groups exist within the larger ethnic groups, and the ethnic groups are also not as cleanly divided as are the states. Portions of ethnic groups have been absorbed into other ethnic groups. The descriptions below pertain to the groups most easily identified. 1. Burman The Burmans descended onto the Irrawaddy plain from the mountainous areas of modern day Tibet and established the first kingdoms as city-states. The Burmans initially conquered the Mon, who were the earliest people to settle in Burma. Under their king, Anawratha, the Burmans adopted Theravada Buddhism in the eleventh century and despite Anawratha s attempts to stamp out animism, beliefs in nat or spirits continue today (adherence to these beliefs is common in Burma and superstitions have influenced policies enacted by the country s leadership). 11 Although the Burmans have formed alliances with some of the other groups in Burma out of necessity in the past, for the past millennium they have been unable to unite the separate ethnic groups in Burma. The Burmans have consistently resisted outside influence in Burma. When Indian immigrants flocked to Burma to farm rice as cultivation and production grew under the 11 Robert I. Rotberg, Burma: Prospects for a Democratic Future (Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998): 13. 10
British, the Burmans, following independence, pressured Indians to leave the country. 12 The current ruling junta claims unity exists among Burma s ethnic groups, but, in reality, the Burman-dominated government has tirelessly worked to undermine the power base of other groups. Through state sponsored education, the Burmans have promoted Burmese as the national language and infused their version of history and culture nationwide. 2. Mon The Mon were the earliest settlers on the Irrawaddy Plain. The Mon had extensive and early impacts not only in Southern Burma, but also in Thailand, and they are linguistically related to the Khmer in Cambodia. 13 The Mon brought Buddhism to Burma, which was adopted by the Burmans. The Mon kings originally ruled over much of lower Burma, but struggled for power with the Burmans from the time of the latter s arrival in the ninth century. Following the capture of Pegu by Alaungpaya in the eighteenth century, the visibility of the Mon culture and territory declined. 14 Also, after defeat at the hands of the Burmans, many Mon fled to Thailand from where Burma s contemporary Mon draw support. Following Burma s independence from the British in 1948, some Mon formed the insurgent Mon National Defense Organization (MNDO) devoted to the establishment of an independent country. 15 The MNDO was followed by the Mon United Front and the New Mon State party. 16 The Mon are still actively resisting the present government, but they are small in number and pose only a minor threat to the ruling junta. The Mon reside mainly along the coast of the Andaman Sea in the Southeastern part of the country. Mon leaders claim a present-day population of over 4 million, but only around 1 million Mon-speakers are officially identified by that name. 17 12 David I. Steinberg, Turmoil in Burma (Norwalk: Eastbridge, 2006), 236. 13 Ibid., 64. 14 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 17. 15 George A. Theodorson, Minority Peoples in the Union of Burma, Journal of Southeast Asian History (1995) 11-12. 16 Ibid., 12. 17 Ibid. 11
3. Karen The Karen are the largest ethnic minority group in Burma and their politics are the most complex of any of Burma s ethnic groups in Burma. 18 The Karen State lies in the southeastern portion of Burma bordering Thailand to the east. The term Karen refers to 20 subgroups of Karen-speaking peoples who come from diverse religious, cultural, and geographical backgrounds. 19 The two dominant subgroups are the Sgaw, who are mainly Christian and occupy the hill area of the Karen State, and the Pwo, who are Buddhist and live in the lowlands. Large numbers of Karen live outside of the Karen State in the Irrawaddy Delta area and in the Tanintharyi (Tenassarim) Division, with a substantial Karen population also residing in Rangoon and the surrounding area. Throughout their history, the Karen have been dominated by their more powerful neighbors, the Burmans, the Mon, and the Siamese (Thais). In the nineteenth century, Baptist missionaries converted many of the Karen from animism to Christianity. This conversion had a long lasting effect as the Karen began to assert their influence in the region. The Karen sided with the British in their wars with the Burman,s which created lasting resentment among the Burman majority. In retaliation for aiding the British in the Second Anglo-Burman War, for instance, the Burmans burned every Karen village within a fifty-mile radius of Rangoon. 20 The Karen acceptance of Western education led to large numbers of Karen assuming positions of prominence in British Burma s administration. At the beginning of World War II, the Karen remained loyal to the British and when the Japanese took control of the country, the Burma Independence Army (BIA) took hostage and brutally executed almost two thousand Karen civilians. 21 The Karen fought alongside the British and Americans when they retook Burma from the Japanese and the Karen expected to gain their own independent state from the British in return for their loyalty. These expectations were short lived, however. 18 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 16. 19 Ardeth Maung Thawnghmung, The Karen Revolution in Burma: Diverse Voices, Uncertain Ends, Policy Study 45 (Southeast Asia) (Washington D.C.: East-West Center, 2008) 3. 20 Theodorson, Minority Peoples, 3. 21 Thawnghmung, The Karen Revolution in Burma, 5. 12
When the Burman-dominated government under U Nu took power in 1948, the animosity that existed between the Burmans and the Karen led to a constitution in which the Karen were not afforded the right to secede (a right that was granted to the Shan and the Karenni). The government, made up largely of members of the Burman Anti-Fascist People s Freedom League (AFPFL), demanded that the Karen National Union (KNU), the largest Karen political party, and members of its armed force, the Karen National Defense Organization (KNDO), turn in their weapons. In 1949, shortly after Karen soldiers in the government army mutinied, the Karen under the KNU s political leadership launched a rebellion directed at the Burmandominated government. The Karen insurgency has been ongoing for decades now. When peace talks between the Burmese Government and the KNU broke down in 1995-6, fighting quickly resumed. 22 In recent years, the government has applied harsh measures against the Karen and forcibly displaced hundreds of thousands of them. Many have fled across the Thai border where they occupy refugee camps while others have relocated in the hill areas on the eastern border. There appears to be no end to the struggle in sight. 4. Shan The Shan make up the second largest ethnic minority group in Burma, comprising about 6% of the overall population. 23 The Shan State is located in a mountainous area in northeastern Burma bordering China, Laos, and Thailand. The Shan, like the Thais and Laotians, originated in China and the Shan native language is Thai. The Shan migrated into northeastern Burma from the Nanchao Kingdom in Yunnan. Their migration greatly accelerated when the Nanchao Kingdom was conquered by Kublai Khan in 1253. 24 After Kublai Khan destroyed the Burman capital at Pagan in 1287, the Shan sacked the city-state in 1299, and dominated Burma until the sixteenth century Shan rule was marked by a great deal of in-fighting, much of which revolved around the Shan feudal political system built around sawbwas, a type of principality.. 25 22 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 16. 23 Ibid., 4. 24 Theodorson, Minority Peoples, 5. 25 Ibid. 13
After Shan power declined in the sixteenth century, the Shan maintained independence from the Burmans only to ally with the Burmans in the face of foreign invaders. When the British colonized Burma, they allowed the Shan to maintain their sawbwas, which the British taxed. After independence, the Shan States joined the Union of Burma with the promise that they could secede in ten years if they so desired. 26 When the Burmese government attempted to weaken the sawbwas and withdrew the promise of secession, the Shan revolted in 1959 in order to form an independent nation. The Shan pushed for federalization of the minority states in Burma but their initiative was squashed by Ne Win and his military government when he took power in 1962. The Shan have since maintained an insurgency against the Burmese government. The largest of their armed groups is the Shan State Army (SSA). The United Wa State Army (UWSA), was described by one U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency official in 2002 as the dominant heroin trafficking group in Southeast Asia, and perhaps the world. 27 Smaller groups, such as the Shan United Revolutionary Army (SURA) and the Shan United Army (SUA) merged over time to form the 15,000-strong Mong Tai Army (MTA). Like the UWSA, the MTA became a major narco-trafficker but surrendered to the SLORC in 1996. The Burmese Army imposed its Four Cuts policy (see Chapter III) on the Shan state between 1996 and 1998, ordering 300,000 Shan from 1,400 villages to leave their homes. 28 The Shan insurgency continues to the present day. 5. Kachin The Kachin are also Tibeto-Burman descendents and migrated around 700 A.D. to settle in the northern mountains of Burma. 29 In doing so, they drove the Chin, Shan, and Palaung out of the northern area of Burma. Although Kachin make up only a small 26 Theodorson, Minority Peoples, 6. 27 Dan Murphy "Burmese Drugs Fuel Regional Strife; Under a Cloud of Drug Suspicion: Burma Accused Thailand of Supporting 'Terrorist' Groups on Friday, The Christian Science Monitor (2002): http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed February 4, 2009). 28 Christina Fink, Living Silence: Burma Under Military Rule (Bangkok: White Lotus Company Ltd. 2001) 125. 29 John F. Cady, The United States and Burma (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976) 8. 14
portion of the population of Burma (1.5 million, 2%), the Kachin State is large and second in size only to the Shan State. 30 Kachin are predominantly Christian, the result of Baptist and Christian missionary work and have a reputation for being fierce fighters. 31 Because of their tenacity, they were heavily recruited by the British to serve in the British Burmese Army. Thanks to their reputation as warriors and given the hilly nature of their terrain, outsiders mostly left the Kachin alone to raid and tax caravans passing between Burma and China. While the Burmans and Shan welcomed the Japanese during World War II, the Kachin and Karen resisted the invasion and worked with the British and Americans in their unconventional warfare campaigns against the occupiers. The Kachin State was created at independence in 1948 on the condition that the Kachin give up claims to the right of secession. 32 In 1961, following U Nu s push to make Buddhism the state religion, the Kachin reacted by forming the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO). The Kachin State became a major site of insurgency and between 1961 and 1986 several tens of thousands of Kachin were estimated to have been killed, and over 100,000 Kachin villagers were forcibly displaced by the Burmese Army. 33 During this same period, the narcotics trade became a main source of revenue for the Kachin. 34 The Kachin agreed to a cease-fire with the Burmese Government in 1994. The Burmese Army occupied portions of the Kachin State leading to a rise in narcotics trafficking in the state. 35 6. Rakhine (Arakanese) Burma s Rakhine State lies in the western part of the country bordering Bangladesh and is adjacent to the Bay of Bengal to the west. Originally known as 30. 30 Martin Smith, Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity (New York: St Martin s Press, 1999) 31 Ibid., 45. 32 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 16. 33 Ibid. 34 Rotberg, Burma, 189. The Kachin reversed their narcotics policy in the late 1980s and developed measures against opium cultivation after their leadership saw addiction rates rise in the Kachin State. 35 Ibid. 15
Arakan, the Rakhine State is separated by mountains from the central plains of Burma and, because of this divide, the Arakanese were able to maintain their independence from Burma until the late eighteenth century. 36 Two major ethnic groups, the Rakhine (Buddhist) and the Rohingya (Muslims), inhabit the Rakhine State with an unofficial population of 5 million, of where approximately 1.5 million are Rohingya. 37 Early Muslim settlements in Arakan date back to the seventh century AD and after the conversion of King Narameikhla to Islam in 1404, Arakan became a majority Muslim kingdom. 38 Buddhist influence grew in Arakan. In 1785, the Burman king Bodapaya conquered Arakan and the independent kingdom now came under Burman influence. In 1824, the British East India Company gained control of Arakan following the First Anglo-Burmese War. The British did not attempt to unify the Arakanese with the other Burmese ethnic groups and Arakan came increasingly under Indian influence. Prior to independence in 1947, General Aung San proposed not all states should receive regional autonomy with the provision of being able to secede after ten years. 39 With the death of Aung San and U Nu s declaration of Buddhism as the state religion, the Arakan Muslims quickly became alienated. Persecution of the Rohingya continues and the Burmese Government has moved non-muslims into the Rakhine State to dampen the Muslim influence. In reaction, low level insurgent movements have developed along the Bangladesh border, and the Burmese government has implemented severe control measures on the Muslim population. The Rohingya, for the most part, do not possess Burmese citizenship and their rights are much more restricted than those of the Rakhine. Since the military takeover of Burma, hundreds of thousands of Rohingya have fled over the Bangladesh border and crowded Rohingya refugee camps exist just inside Bangladesh. 36 Theodorson, Minority Peoples, 12. 37 Syed Serajul Islam, State Terrorism in Arakan, in A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia, 325-351 (Northhampton: Edward Elgar, 2007) 326. 38 Ibid., 327. 39 Ibid., 328. 16
7. Chin The Chin State is located in the mountainous northwest portion of Burma on the Assam, India-Bangladesh border. Constituting over 40 dialect sub-groups, the Chin are the most diverse ethnic nationality in Burma and their population is an estimated 1.5 million. 40 Many Chin move back and forth between India and Burma. Descended from Tibetan tribes, the Chin were animists and preliterate before the arrival of Western missionaries who converted many to Christianity. 41 Under the British, the Chin were not granted independence and remained under the rule of the Burman kings; the Chin did not mount an insurgency following independence as did so many of the other minority ethnic groups. The situation for the Chin changed dramatically following the 1988 pro-democracy protests, when many Chin students went underground and formed the Chin National Front. 42 Fighting has grown since the Burmese Army crackdown and many Chin have fled across the Indian border. All political parties in the Chin State have been banned by the ruling junta and the army has resorted to forced labor and even supposedly encouraged soldiers to marry Chin girls in order to infiltrate their families and villages. There have been further reports of discrimination by the government against Chin Christians, including restrictions on the building of churches and harassment of local pastors. 43 The government has imprisoned several Chin leaders for protesting government policies and there appears to be no let up on repression. 8. Karenni The Kayah State, home of the Karenni, is sandwiched between the Shan State to the north and the Karen State to the south on Burma s eastern border with Thailand. Karenni ( Red Karen ) is the collective name for a dozen Karen-speaking groups; the name comes from the traditional color of the clothing of the largest sub-group, the 40 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 15. 41 Theodorson, Minority Peoples,14. 42 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 15. 43 Ibid. 17
Kayah. 44 The majority of Karenni are Christian, mostly Baptist and Catholic. In a country that is overwhelmingly Buddhist, it seems logical for the Christian minority to stay united. However, the Christians in the Kayah State have let disagreements separate them from the Baptist Karenni. 45 The Burmese Government has attempted to use this divide to drive a wedge between the Christian subgroups to weaken their resolve. The Karenni have a reputation as superb fighters dating back to the seventeenth century when they attained their independence from both Thai and Burman rulers. 46 The British under colonization never annexed the then-karenni State (the government changed the name to Kayah State in 1951) and Kayah State, like most others, was granted the right to secede (after ten years) under the 1947 Burmese Constitution. The Karenni have resisted capitulating to the Burmese Government continuously since World War II. But the leading Karenni opposition groups, the Karenni National Progressive Party (KNPP), the left-wing Karenni Nationalities People s Liberation Front (KNPLF), and the Kayan New Land Party (KNLP) have also suffered from in-fighting. This has helped the Burmese Government to keep the groups apart. The Kayah State, while possessing Burma s most important hydro-electric plant and valuable mineral reserves, has some of the poorest educational and health indicators of any part of the country. 47 The Karenni have also suffered displacement of their population by the junta, and thousands of Karenni refugees reside on the Thai side of the border with Burma. 9. Chinese and Indians Burma is home to large Chinese and Indian populations. While not recognized by the Government of Burma as separate ethnic minorities (or national races ), and though they don t live in designated states, Burma s resident Chinese and Indians were influential during British rule and during the rise of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB). The Indian population is estimated to exceed one million and most live in 44 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 17. 45 Martin Smith, Burma Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity, 353. 46 Ronald D. Renard, The Delineation of the Kayah States Frontiers with Thailand: 1809-1894, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (1987). 47 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 17. 18
Western Burma in the Rakhine State. However, the Indian population is much smaller than it could potentially have been. In the 1930s, deliberate anti-indian violence directed at the Indians who migrated to Burma to farm rice resulted in 500,000 Indians fleeing Burma. Following Ne Win s 1962 coup, another 300,000 returned to India. The Chinese population in Burma is around half a million and the Chinese reside mainly in the states bordering China. 48 The Chinese have been linked to the CPB in the twentieth century and more recently, the Burmese have viewed the Chinese as rivals in business. Like the Indians, the Chinese also fled en masse following the Ne Win coup. Both the Chinese and the Indian populations in Burma continue to face discrimination under the 1982 Citizenship Law that limits non-citizens from education benefits, owning property, and holding public office. 49 Anti-Chinese and anti-indian sentiment remains strong in Burma despite the strengthening of relations between Burma and both countries. G. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1. Bagan, Taungoo, Konbaung Kingdoms Burma has only been unified at three points in its history. First, in the eleventh century, the Bagan Dynasty established centralized rule. Today, looking back this is considered the Golden Age. 50 It was in this time period that Therevada Buddhism made its first appearance, and the Bagan ruled from 1044 until the thirteenth century when Mongol invaders destroyed the Bagan capitol in the Irrawaddy River Delta. In the fifteenth century, Burma was again unified, this time under the Taungoo Dynasty, which lasted until the eighteenth century when it was defeated by, the Shan. The final Burman royal dynasty, the Konbaung, was established in 1752 under the rule of King Alaungpaya and lasted until the fall of King Thibaw to the British in 1885. 48 Martin Smith, Burma (Myanmar): The Time for Change, 16. 49 Ibid. 50 Ibid. 19
As the Konbaung (1752-1885) expanded westward in the 1820s, eventually conquering Assam, the British East India Company reacted. 51 In 1824, the armies of the Burmese king and the English East India Company fought the longest and most expensive war in British Indian history. 52 This initial war, dubbed the First Anglo- Burman War, was followed by the Second (1852-3) and Third Anglo-Burman (1885) Wars. The third and final war began with a dispute over teak concessions, but was actually a reaction by the British to French ambitions to expand into Burma as part of their Southeast Asia colonization strategy. 53 The Third Anglo-Burman War ended the rule of the last Burman King Thibaw and began Britain s colonization of Burma. The lead up to British colonization was marked by rising conflict in Burma between the Burman monarchy and the minority ethnic groups. Throughout the reign of the Konbaung, the Mon and Karen resisted their Burman rulers and aided the British during their three wars waged against the Konbaung. A formidable Shan rebellion broke out in 1883, and the Kachin invaded Upper Burma in force in 1884-1885. 54 As already mentioned, tension between the Burmans and the ethnic minorities persists to the present day. British colonization of Burma had similarly long lasting effects which have carried over into modern Burma. When the British colonized Burma, they did so as an extension of their rule in India and governed Burma through Indian colonial administrators. 2. British Colonization Under British rule, Burma experienced significant changes. The British rejected Burman Buddhist laws and replaced them with an administrative system that functioned under permanent lines of authority, radiating from the center to the colony s borders. 55 51 US State Department, Burma, 1. 51 Ibid., 111-112. 52 Ibid., 113. 53 John F. Cady, A History of Modern Burma (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1958) 118-119. 54 Ibid., 116. 55 Rotberg, Burma 17. 20
The Burman monastic education system was eventually replaced by missionary and state education designed to marginalize the Buddhist monks. Along with replacing the Burman king with a foreign governor, the British set up a permanent hierarchy and brought in well-educated and trained administrators, who served throughout the land. The military and police in Burma were led by Britons, but staffed by Indians and ethnic minorities, further shifting the balance of power from the Burmans to minorities and foreigners. 56 The British furthered the divide between the Burmans and the ethnic minorities by implementing indirect rule in the hill areas. Overall, the colonial system introduced liberal democracy to the Burmans, and Burman society moved in two general directions. The urban elites pushed for independence based on constitutional government while the rural population desired a return to traditional values from the pre-colonial period. This kept the minorities not only separated from the Burmans, but separated from each other. 3. World War II Japanese Occupation These latent divides came to the fore when the Japanese invaded Burma in 1942. In their original war plans, the Japanese did not intend to invade Burma, but reconsidered after they thought they could bring the war in China to a close by cutting off the Burma Road. 57 Also, Burma provided Japan with much needed raw materials to support its war effort, while Japanese used Burman agents to provide information about the status of the British defenses prior to invasion. Aung San, who avoided arrest in Burma for subversion and fled to Japan, organized from within Burma the Thirty Comrades. These were Burman allies who aided the Japanese in their invasion of Burma. Many of the members of the Thirty Comrades came to political prominence following the war, to include future dictator Ne Win. On December 8, 1941, the day following the Pearl 56 Rotberg, Burma, 19. 57 Cady, The United States and Burma, 156. 21