AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PATENT LAW S INEQUITABLE CONDUCT DOCTRINE Thomas F. Cotter * In recent years, patent law s inequitable conduct doctrine has attracted considerable attention from judges, legislators, patent lawyers, and commentators. This trend culminated most recently in Therasense, Inc. v. Becton, Dickinson & Co., an en banc decision from the Federal Circuit that revised certain aspects of the doctrine. Building on the work of other scholars, this Article proposes an instrumental view of the doctrine as, ideally, a tool for inducing patent applicants to disclose the optimal quantity of information relating to the patentability of their inventions; it then presents a formal model of the applicant s choices in deciding how much information to reveal. The model suggests, among other things, that even after Therasense, the conditions that trigger a finding of inequitable conduct are at best only a rough proxy for the conditions defining optimal disclosure. The model also illuminates how, both pre- and post-therasense, the doctrine poorly defines many of the variables affecting a rational applicant s decisionmaking process and thus potentially encourages risk-averse agents to overdisclose. Although the model neither confirms nor refutes critics claims that the doctrine routinely induces overdisclosure and excessive administrative costs, the model demonstrates how various reforms including but not limited to those adopted in Therasense, can be expected to reduce these reputed consequences. The model also suggests, however, that the need for some type of inequitable conduct doctrine may be greater in a regime like the United States, which lacks an effective system for post-grant oppositions. Conversely, if the United States adopted a post-grant opposition system, the need for a robust inequitable conduct doctrine would decline. * Briggs and Morgan Professor of Law, University of Minnesota Law School. I thank Nicholas Tymoczko and Sanjiv Laud for research assistance; and, for their comments and criticism, Chris Cotropia, Dan Gifford, and Dan Schwarcz; participants in the Tenth Annual Intellectual Property Scholars Conference at the University of California at Berkeley; student and faculty participants at a workshop held at the University of Michigan, in particular Dan Crane, Rebecca Eisenberg, and Peg Radin; and participants in the 21st Annual Meeting of the American Law and Economics Association, held at Columbia University School of Law in May 2011. Any errors that remain are my own.
736 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION... 736 I. DOCTRINAL CONTOURS... 741 II. A FORMAL MODEL OF THE INEQUITABLE CONDUCT DOCTRINE... 752 A. A Socially Optimal Inequitable Conduct Doctrine... 752 B. Modeling an Applicant s Incentive to Disclose... 757 C. Modeling Materiality, Intent, and Balancing... 762 III. IMPLICATIONS OF THE PRECEDING ANALYSIS... 766 A. The Gap Between Theory and Practice... 767 B. Predicting the Effects of Various Proposed Reforms... 770 1. Some Commonly Suggested Reforms... 770 2. The Effect of Risk Aversion... 774 3. Some Less Obvious Reforms... 775 CONCLUSION... 778 INTRODUCTION In patent litigation, the defense of inequitable conduct to a claim of patent infringement authorizes a court to render an otherwise valid patent unenforceable if the accused infringer can prove that, during the course of applying for ( prosecuting ) the patent before the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office ( USPTO ), the inventor or her associates either intentionally submitted materially false information relating to the invention at issue or intentionally failed to disclose information that was material to the examination of the patent application. 1 Although courts did not clearly recognize (and litigants rarely invoked) the inequitable conduct doctrine until the middle to later part of the twentieth century, the doctrine has emerged from obscurity over the past 30 years to become one of the most frequently raised defenses and most hotly debated topics in contemporary patent law. 2 The doctrine nevertheless often has been surprisingly 1. See infra Part I. 2. Estimates of how often the defense is asserted vary somewhat. See Christopher A. Cotropia, Modernizing Patent Law s Inequitable Conduct Doctrine, 24 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 723, 739 (2009) (stating that the defense is asserted in about 25% of all patent cases filed); Christian E. Mammen, Controlling the Plague : Reforming the Doctrine of Inequitable Conduct, 24 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 1329, 1358 tbl.2 (2009) (presenting an empirical study concluding that the defense was raised in about 40% of all patent cases filed since 2007); Benjamin Brown, Comment, Inequitable Conduct: A Standard in Motion, 19 FORDHAM INTELL. PROP. MEDIA & ENT. L.J. 593, 605 15 (2009) (reporting that from 2000 to 2007 courts addressed, on average, inequitable conduct in less than 20% of all reported patent cases, but that it is almost impossible to ascertain the number of times inequitable conduct was pled ); Kevin Mack, Note, Reforming Inequitable Conduct to Improve Patent Quality: Cleansing Unclean Hands, 21 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 147, 155 56 & tbl.1 (2006) (reporting that from 2000 to 2004... an inequitable conduct adjudication appeared in 16% to 35% of all reported patent opinions, and that it can be inferred that the percent of patent cases in which a litigant ple[d] inequitable conduct is substantially higher than these figures ). In its recent decision in Therasense, Inc. v. Becton,
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 737 Dickinson & Co., the Federal Circuit noted that [o]ne study estimated that eighty percent of patent infringement cases included allegations of inequitable conduct. Nos. 2008-1511, -1512, -1513, -1514, -1595, 2011 WL 2028255, at *8 (Fed. Cir. May 25, 2011) (en banc). The position paper referenced by the court for this proposition, however, is over 20 years old and cites no supporting data for its estimate. Ad Hoc Comm. on Rule 56 and Inequitable Conduct, Am. Intellectual Prop. Law Ass n, The Doctrine of Inequitable Conduct and the Duty of Candor in Patent Procurement: Its Current Adverse Impact on the Operation of the United States Patent System, 16 AIPLA Q.J. 74, 75 (1988). Similarly, some Federal Circuit judges have referred to the habit of charging inequitable conduct in almost every major patent case as an absolute plague, see Larson Mfg. Co. v. Aluminart Prods. Ltd., 559 F.3d 1317, 1342 (Fed. Cir. 2009) (Linn, J., concurring) (quoting Kingsdown Med. Consultants, Ltd. v. Hollister Inc., 863 F.2d 867, 876 n.15 (Fed. Cir. 1988)), a charge that is repeated in Therasense, see 2011 WL 2028255, at *9, but the reference to the doctrine being raised in almost every major patent case appears to be something of an overstatement, see Mammen, supra, at 1331 (citations omitted); Brown, supra, at 626. The following examples illustrate the ongoing debate involving the doctrine: S. REP. NO. 110-259, at 31 33 (2008) (discussing proposed changes to the doctrine, including permitting courts to consider sanctions other than unenforceability of the patent in its entirety); id. at 59 62 (providing additional views of Senators Specter and Hatch on the inequitable conduct doctrine, who argue that courts need more guidance concerning when to impose more severe or less severe penalties ); FED. TRADE COMM N, TO PROMOTE INNOVATION: THE PROPER BALANCE OF COMPETITION AND PATENT LAW AND POLICY ch. 5, at 11 13 (2003), available at http://www.ftc.gov/os/2003/10/innovationrpt.pdf (recommending expanded use of relevance statements); NAT L RESEARCH COUNCIL, A PATENT SYSTEM FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 121 23 (Stephen A. Merrill et al. eds., 2004) (proposing abolition of the doctrine, or in the alternative various reforms); SECTION OF INTELLECTUAL PROP. LAW, AM. BAR ASS N, RECOMMENDATION 107B (2009), available at http:// www.abanow.org/wordpress/wp-content/themes/abanow/wp-content/uploads/resolutionpdfs/107b.pdf (recommending that the doctrine be limited to situations in which fraud results in the granting of one or more invalid claims); Robert A. Armitage, Inequitable Conduct and Post-Grant Review: Why the Imperative to Eliminate the Inequitable Conduct Defense? What Relates Eliminating the Defense to Expanding Post-Grant Review?, AM. INTELL. PROP. L. ASS N, Jan. 2009, at 1 5 (arguing in favor of abolition); Cotropia, supra, at 737 46, 773 83 (reviewing critiques of current doctrine and proposing reforms); Lisa A. Dolak, Inequitable Conduct: A Flawed Doctrine Worth Saving, in 4th ANNUAL PATENT LAW INSTITUTE, at 877, 879, 881 92 (PLI Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks & Literary Prop., Course Handbook Series No. 997, 2010), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1588916 (reviewing critiques of current doctrine and proposing reforms); Robin Feldman, The Role of the Subconscious in Intellectual Property Law, 2 HASTINGS SCI. & TECH. L.J. 1, 14 23 (2010) (arguing that current doctrine requires inventors to act against their own interests and in a manner that contradicts their instincts, and then charges them with immoral behavior for an inability to consciously override those instincts ); Senator Orrin G. Hatch, Keynote Address at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C. (Mar. 18, 2009), in 78 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 513, 517 (2010) (arguing for a narrower definition of materiality); Mammen, supra, at 1390 94 (presenting reform proposals); Kate McElhone, Inequitable Conduct: Shifting Standards for Patent Applicants, Prosecutors, and Litigators, 17 TEX. INTELL. PROP. L.J. 385, 405 12 (2009) (proposing various reforms and discussing other proposals); David McGowan, Inequitable Conduct, 43 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 945 (2010) (arguing for a reformed version of the doctrine); Lee Petherbridge et al., The Federal Circuit and Inequitable Conduct: An Empirical Assessment, 84 S. CAL. L. REV. (forthcoming 2011) (presenting an empirical study of the courts application of the doctrine and concluding that the doctrine rarely succeeds in practice);
738 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 uncertain both in its application and efficacy in promoting the goals of the patent system. Conventionally, the law of inequitable conduct (like its cousin, patent misuse) can be viewed as an outgrowth of the equitable doctrine of unclean hands in the present context, as a means of preventing patent owners from profiting through fraud on the USPTO. 3 Courts have expanded the doctrine s reach so that in its present incarnation, inequitable conduct encompasses not only misrepresentations and omissions amounting to outright fraud but also to an amorphous category of somewhat lesser sins. The Federal Circuit has made clear, for example, that conduct need not rise to the level of fraud that would sustain a Walker Process antitrust claim in order to be characterized as inequitable conduct. 4 Nevertheless, defining exactly what inequitable conduct is has sometimes proven elusive; as discussed below, case law has often defined the doctrine s key elements of intent and materiality in ways that seem both imprecise and inconsistent. 5 For practical purposes, the significance of the doctrine resides in the fact that a finding of inequitable conduct results in the unenforceability of all of the claims of the patent at issue and sometimes even of related patents. 6 Alarmed at these potential consequences, critics charge that the doctrine has become a death sentence for minor offenses, 7 while defenders counter that the doctrine deters Randall R. Rader, Always at the Margin: Inequitable Conduct in Flux, 59 AM. U. L. REV. 777, 785 (2010) (arguing in favor of clearer standards); David O. Taylor, Patent Fraud, 83 TEMP. L. REV. 49, 72 73, 77 98 (2010) (arguing that inequitable conduct should be limited to the fraudulent procurement of patents, and that other penalties should be imposed for lesser misconduct, and proposing other possible reforms); Melissa Feeney Wasserman, Limiting the Inequitable Conduct Defense, 13 VA. J.L. & TECH. 7, 16 22 (2008) (arguing for limiting the doctrine to common law fraud and for a range of penalties); Brown, supra, at 616 20 (reviewing testimony presented at Patent Reform Act hearings); Mack, supra, at 166 75 (proposing various reforms); Nicole M. Murphy, Note, Inequitable-Conduct Doctrine Reform: Is the Death Penalty for Patents Still Appropriate?, 93 MINN. L. REV. 2274, 2274 75, 2296 2302 (2009) (reviewing critiques of current doctrine and proposing guidelines for a range of sanctions); Katherine Nolan-Stevaux, Note, Inequitable Conduct Claims in the 21st Century: Combating the Plague, 20 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 147, 164 72 (2005) (discussing and proposing various reforms); The Patent Reform Act Will Hurt, Not Help, the U.S. Patent System, PATENT OFFICE PROF L ASS N (Sept. 2007), http://www.popa.org/pdf/misc/reform-popa-04sep2007.pdf (arguing that proposed Patent Reform Act changes to the doctrine would reduce applicant candor and render the doctrine moot). 3. See Cotropia, supra note 2, at 728 (noting the conventional understanding of inequitable conduct as a doctrine rooted in equity rather than in utilitarian considerations). 4. See Dippin Dots, Inc. v. Mosey, 476 F.3d 1337, 1346 48 (Fed. Cir. 2007). A Walker Process claim is an antitrust claim premised on the theory that the antitrust defendant s enforcement of a fraudulently procured patent constitutes an act of monopolization or attempted monopolization in violation of Sherman Act 2. See Walker Process Equip., Inc. v. Food Mach. & Chem. Corp., 382 U.S. 172, 177 (1965); Nobelpharma AB v. Implant Innovations, Inc., 141 F.3d 1059, 1068 (Fed. Cir. 1998). 5. See infra Part I. 6. See id. 7. See Murphy, supra note 2, at 2274 (quoting Robert Armitage as likening the penalty to imposing the death penalty for relatively minor acts of misconduct ); see also
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 739 misconduct and thus contributes to the integrity of patent prosecution and enforcement. 8 And, although the Federal Circuit s recent en banc decision in Therasense, Inc. v. Becton, Dickinson & Co. 9 has recast the doctrine in ways that likely will pacify some of the critics, the question still remains whether Therasense succeeds in stemming further reforms or doctrinal adjustments. Congress has long considered changes to the inequitable conduct doctrine as part of a comprehensive system of patent reform, 10 and, as of this writing, a certiorari petition in Therasense seems likely. 11 Aventis Pharma S.A. v. Amphastar Pharm., Inc., 525 F.3d 1334, 1349 (Fed. Cir. 2008) (Rader, J., dissenting) (referring to the atomic bomb remedy of unenforceability ). 8. See Dolak, supra note 2, at 881 86 (advocating reforms but ultimately arguing in favor of retaining the doctrine because inequitable conduct happens! ); Brown, supra note 2, at 616 17 (reviewing congressional testimony in favor of retaining the doctrine). 9. Nos. 2008-1511, -1512, -1513, -1514, -1595, 2011 WL 2028255 (Fed. Cir. May 25, 2011) (en banc). The conduct at issue in Therasense consisted of representations made to the USPTO by Abbott Laboratories patent attorney and an Abbott executive during the course of prosecuting what came to be the patent in suit the 551 Patent. Id. at *1 2. Specifically, these individuals had represented that a person of skill in the relevant art would have understood the phrase optionally, but preferably as used in a prior art patent (the 382 Patent) to mean necessarily. Id. On the basis of these representations, the examiner allowed the 551 Patent. Id. at *2 3. It later came to light, however, that Abbott s European patent counsel had made conflicting representations about the meaning of the same claim term in an earlier proceeding before the European Patent Office involving the European counterpart of the 382 Patent. See id. The legal issues surrounding application of the inequitable conduct doctrine are discussed in Part I below. 10. The most recent actions in Congress were the approvals by the Senate of the Patent Reform Act of 2011 and by the House Judiciary Committee of the American Invents Act of 2011. Using identical language, both bills would modify the inequitable conduct doctrine by allowing patent owners to request supplemental examinations to consider, reconsider, or correct information believed to be relevant to the patent and providing that a patent shall not be held unenforceable on the basis of conduct relating to information that had not been considered, was inadequately considered, or was incorrect in a prior examination of the patent if the information was considered, reconsidered, or corrected during a supplemental examination concluded before the date on which the patentee files suit for infringement. See S. 23, 112th Cong., 10(a) (2011), available at http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=s112-23; HR 1249, 112th Cong., 11(a) (2011), available at http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h112-1249. Some previous patent reform bills introduced in recent years would have reformed the doctrine in other ways. See Patent Reform Act of 2009, S. 610, 111th Cong., 11 (2009), available at http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=s111-610 (providing for administrative proceedings and civil sanctions for misconduct before the USPTO, and otherwise stating that a patent shall not be held invalid or unenforceable on the basis of misconduct before the Office ); Patent Reform Act of 2007, S. 1145, 110th Cong., 12 (2008) (codifying the reasonable examiner standard, among other things, and enabling courts to hold the entire patent unenforceable; only some claims unenforceable; or to allow the patentee to recover reasonable royalties only); Patent Reform Act of 2007, HR 1908, 110th Cong., 12(b) (2007) (codifying a materiality standard similar to the 1992 version of Rule 56 to allow courts to consider a range of penalties); Patent Reform Act of 2006, S. 3818, 109th Cong., 5(c) (2006) (providing that a court may not hold a patent unenforceable by reason of inequitable conduct unless one or more claims are invalid; and that a defendant may not
740 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 Some recent scholarship has begun to cast the inequitable conduct doctrine in a more instrumental vein by focusing on the doctrine as, ideally, a tool for encouraging patent applicants to engage in the optimal disclosure of information relevant to their applications. 12 This Article builds upon this body of work by modeling the variables a rational applicant would consider in deciding how much information to reveal to the USPTO. The model suggests, among other things, that the conditions that trigger a finding of inequitable conduct, both in the doctrine s current and previous versions as well as in various proposed reformulations are at best only a rough proxy for the conditions that define the optimal disclosure of information relating to patentability. The model also illuminates how poorly the doctrine has traditionally defined many of the factors affecting a rational applicant s decisionmaking process and has potentially encouraged risk-averse agents to overdisclose. Put another way, the model is intended primarily to clarify what various factors the courts have identified as relevant to the analysis might mean, how these factors relate to one another, and how, depending on their meanings and interrelationships, they would be expected to affect the behavior of both risk-neutral and, subsequently, risk-averse patent applicants and their agents. Thus, although the model neither confirms nor refutes critics claims that the doctrine has routinely induced overdisclosure and excessive plead the defense until there has been a judgment that the patent is not invalid in whole and has been infringed ); Patent Reform Act of 2005, HR 2795, 109th Cong., 5 (2005) (providing that a court must refer possible misconduct to the USPTO for investigation, but only if one or more claims have been held invalid; and that it may declare a patent unenforceable only if the USPTO concludes that inequitable conduct occurred). 11. See Kevin Noonan, Therasense, Inc. v. Becton, Dickinson & Co. (Fed. Cir. 2011) (en banc): Judge O Malley s Opinion, PAT. DOCS: BIOTECH & PHARMA PAT. L. & NEWS BLOG (May 30, 2011), http://www.patentdocs.org/2011/05/therasense-inc-v-bectondickinson-co-fed-cir-2011-en-banc-judge-omalleys-opinion.html; Harold C. Wegner, A Post-Therasense Rule 56 Duty of Disclosure, IP FRONTLINE (May 30, 2011), http://www.ipfrontline.com/depts/article.aspx?id=25337&deptid=7. 12. See Cotropia, supra note 2, at 746 62 (characterizing the doctrine as a tool for attaining optimal patent quality); Clarisa Long, Patent Signals, 69 U. CHI. L. REV. 625, 668 71 (2002) ( By imposing higher costs on patentees who would attempt to take advantage of high observer verification costs by making false statements in the patent, penalties for inequitable conduct make it more costly for dishonest firms to mimic the behavior of honest firms. ); McGowan, supra note 2, at 974 (arguing that the doctrine should reflect the instrumental concern that examiners have the information they need to decide whether an application satisfies the statutory criteria ); Taylor, supra note 2, at 63 64 (discussing the costs of overdisclosure). The goals of attaining optimal patent quality, or of preserving a patent s function as a signal of firm value, can be subsumed within the broader utilitarian concept of optimal disclosure. As discussed in Part II of this Article, the concept of optimal disclosure assumes that the patent applicant s disclosure of relevant information, properly defined, promotes social welfare when (1) the applicant enjoys a cost advantage over the examiner in discovering and disclosing the information, and (2) the social benefits of additional disclosure outweigh the social costs of information overload. When these conditions are not present, patent quality and signaling may suffer. See Cotropia, supra note 2, at 770 73. This instrumental explanation for the doctrine attempts to conform the doctrine to the utilitarian thrust of patent law generally, though it contrasts with the more conventional understanding of the doctrine as promoting the integrity of the patent system as a deontological end in itself. See id. at 746 47.
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 741 administrative costs again, the model is intended principally as positive or explanatory, not normative it demonstrates some ways in which various doctrinal changes, either by themselves or in combination, might be expected to reduce the negative consequences that critics claim the doctrine has generated. Finally, the model suggests that the social value of an inequitable conduct doctrine may be greater in a regime like that of the United States, which lacks an effective system for post-grant oppositions. Conversely, if the United States adopted a post-grant opposition system, the need for a robust inequitable conduct doctrine would decline. I. DOCTRINAL CONTOURS By many accounts, the inequitable conduct doctrine has its origins in three mid-twentieth century U.S. Supreme Court decisions in which the Court held that the patents at issue were unenforceable because the patent owners had engaged in some sort of fraudulent conduct in the course of procuring or litigating their patents. 13 Lower courts thereafter developed different tests for determining whether the patent owner or applicant had engaged in inequitable conduct, thus rendering the patent unenforceable. 14 Independent from these developments, the USPTO in 1977 promulgated Patent Rule 56, which imposed on patent applicants and persons associated with them a duty to disclose information they are aware of which is material to the examination of the application. 15 Rule 56 defined 13. See Precision Instrument Mfg. Co. v. Auto. Maint. Mach. Co., 324 U.S. 806, 819 (1945) (holding that, where patent owner had every reason to believe that purported inventor had submitted false testimony during the course of an interference proceeding relating to his dates of invention and conception, the resulting patent was rendered unenforceable); Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. v. Hartford-Empire Co., 322 U.S. 238, 250 (1944) (setting aside a judgment of patent infringement, where patent owner had caused the publication of a trade journal article authored by its patent attorney but attributed to a disinterested expert that falsely touted the subject invention s advances over the prior art, and had used that article to deceive both the Patent Office and the district court on the issue of patentability); Keystone Driller Co. v. Gen. Excavator Co., 290 U.S. 245, 246 47 (1933) (affirming dismissal of complaint for patent infringement, where patent owner had corrupted a witness and suppressed evidence of another s prior use in order to defend against patent invalidity in a prior infringement action involving related patents). As in the patent misuse cases, which the Court was deciding during roughly the same time period, in these three cases the Court drew an analogy to the equitable doctrine of unclean hands. Earlier patent law had recognized limited rights to cancel patents that were procured by fraud. See Robert J. Goldman, Evolution of the Inequitable Conduct Defense in Patent Litigation, 7 HARV. J.L. & TECH. 37, 39 45 (1993); McGowan, supra note 2, at 948 56; Sean M. O Connor, Defusing the Atomic Bomb of Patent Litigation: Avoiding and Defending Against Allegations of Inequitable Conduct After McKesson et al., 9 J. MARSHALL REV. INTELL. PROP. L. 330, 331 33 (2010). 14. See, e.g., Plastic Container Corp. v. Cont l Plastics, Inc., 607 F.2d 885, 899 901 (10th Cir. 1979); Norton v. Curtiss, 433 F.2d 779, 791 97 (C.C.P.A. 1970). For discussion of post-precision Instrument, pre-federal Circuit case law, see Goldman, supra note 13, at 56 57; O Connor, supra note 13, at 340 44, 352; Gerald Sobel, Reconsidering the Scope of the Inequitable Conduct Doctrine in View of Supreme Court Precedent and Patent Policy, 18 FED. CIR. B.J. 169, 172 74 (2009). 15. 37 C.F.R. 1.56 (1977). An earlier version of Rule 56 merely authorized the USPTO to strike an application that was fraudulently filed or in connection with which any
742 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 information as material if there is a substantial likelihood that a reasonable examiner would consider it important in deciding whether to allow the application to issue as a patent. 16 The USPTO s amended version of Rule 56, which went into effect in 1992, similarly imposes on [e]ach individual associated with the filing and prosecution of a patent application... a duty to disclose to the Office all information known to that individual to be material to patentability, 17 while also providing a more detailed definition of materiality. Specifically, the current version of Rule 56 states that information is material if it is not cumulative to information already of record or being made of record in the application, and it either establishes, by itself or in combination with other information, a prima facie case of unpatentability of a claim or refutes, or is inconsistent with, a position the applicant takes in... [o]pposing an argument of unpatentability relied on by the Office, or... [a]sserting an argument of patentability. 18 Rule 56 further specifies that no patent will be granted on an application in connection with which fraud on the Office was practiced or attempted or the duty of disclosure was violated through bad faith or intentional misconduct. 19 Since its formation in the early 1980s, the Federal Circuit has drawn on these various sources to fashion its own version of an inequitable conduct defense that sometimes applies to conduct significantly less egregious than the misconduct that was at issue in the Supreme Court trilogy. Illustrating how the doctrine operates under current law requires a short foray into the workings of patent prosecution and litigation. Briefly stated, to begin the process of obtaining a patent, the inventor files a patent application with the USPTO. 20 The USPTO then assigns an examiner to determine whether the application meets the statutory requirements for patentability among them, whether the application recites patentable subject matter, 21 whether the claimed invention is both novel and nonobvious in light of the relevant prior art, 22 and whether the application fraud [was] practiced or attempted on the Patent Office. O Connor, supra note 13, at 338 (quoting 37 C.F.R. 1.56 (1949)). 16. 37 C.F.R. 1.56 (1977). 17. 37 C.F.R. 1.56(a) (2009). In the wake of the recent en banc Therasense decision, discussed below, the USPTO has proposed a revision to the Rule 56 materiality standard that tracks Therasense. See Revision to the Materiality Standard for the Duty to Disclose Information in Patent Applications, 76 Fed. Reg. 43631 (July 21, 2011). 18. 37 C.F.R. 1.56(b) (2009). The rule goes on to state: A prima facie case of unpatentability is established when the information compels a conclusion that a claim is unpatentable under the preponderance of evidence, burden-of-proof standard, giving each term in the claim its broadest reasonable construction consistent with the specification, and before any consideration is given to evidence which may be submitted in an attempt to establish a contrary conclusion of patentability. Id. 1.56(b)(2)(ii). 19. Id. 1.56(a). 20. See 35 U.S.C. 111(a) (2006). 21. See 35 U.S.C. 101 (2006); Bilski v. Kappos, 130 S. Ct. 3218, 3225 (2010). 22. See 35 U.S.C. 102, 103 (2006).
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 743 conforms to Patent Act 112. 23 Ostensibly, to assist the examiner in making this determination, Rule 56 (as noted above) requires the inventor to disclose material information, either in the body of the patent application or in a document known as an Information Disclosure Statement or IDS. 24 If the inventor is successful in obtaining a patent, she is then free to file suit against anyone she has reason to believe is making, using, or selling the invention without authorization. 25 Suppose, then, that inventor P files suit against defendant D for infringement. In defense, D typically will first assert that he is not infringing; for example, D may contend that, contrary to P s allegations, D s products or services do not fall within the scope of any of the patent s claims. Second, D is likely to assert that, even if his products fall within the scope of one or more of the patent s claims, D s conduct is lawful because the claims themselves are invalid. D may contend, among other things, that during the course of patent prosecution the examiner overlooked or failed to appreciate the significance of certain prior art references demonstrating that the invention lacked novelty or was obvious; or that the claims do not recite patentable subject matter; or that the specification fails to conform to 112. 26 A third possible defense is that, even if the patent is both valid and infringed, it remains unenforceable by reason of inequitable conduct. 27 To understand how this defense differs from invalidity requires an exploration of a fairly complex body of Federal Circuit case law. According to the Federal Circuit, inequitable conduct encompasses both the intentional submission of materially false information and the failure to disclose material information. More precisely, the substantive elements of inequitable conduct are: (1) an individual associated with the filing and prosecution of a patent application made an affirmative misrepresentation of a material fact, failed to disclose material information, or submitted false material information; and (2) the individual did so with a specific intent to deceive the 23. As interpreted by the courts, 112 requires the applicant to provide a written description demonstrating that the inventor is in possession of the claimed subject matter, Ariad Pharm., Inc. v. Eli Lilly & Co., 598 F.3d 1336, 1351 (Fed. Cir. 2010) (en banc); to enable a person of skill in the art to make and use the invention, id. at 1343 (quoting 35 U.S.C. 112 (2006)); to reveal the inventor s best mode, if any, of carrying out the invention, id.; and to conclude with one or more claims particularly pointing out and distinctly claiming the subject matter which the applicant regards as his invention, 35 U.S.C. 112, para. 2. The claims therefore define the boundaries of the invention; the typical patent contains multiple claims relating to various aspects of the invention. 24. See 37 C.F.R. 1.97, 1.98 (2009). 25. See 35 U.S.C. 271(a) (2006). 26. Patents are presumed valid, 35 U.S.C. 282 (2006), and the defendant has the burden of proving invalidity by clear and convincing evidence, Microsoft Corp. v. i4i Ltd. P ship, 131 S. Ct. 2238, 2242 (2011). Nevertheless, statistics show that defendants are successful in proving invalidity essentially, that the USPTO made a mistake in issuing one or more claims of the patent almost 50% of the time. See John R. Allison & Mark A. Lemley, Empirical Evidence on the Validity of Litigated Patents, 26 AIPLA Q.J. 185, 205 07 (1998). 27. Other possible defenses not relevant to the present discussion include patent misuse, laches, and implied license.
744 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 PTO. 28 Difficulties arise, however, in trying to define these elements of materiality and intent with any degree of precision. As for materiality, prior to Therasense the Federal Circuit had retained all five of the standards reflected in pre-federal Circuit case law, the 1977 version of Rule 56, and the 1992 version of Rule 56. These five standards included: (1) an objective but-for test (i.e., the patent should not have issued absent the fraud); (2) a subjective but-for standard (i.e., the patent would not have issued absent the fraud); (3) a but-it-may-have standard (i.e., the fraud may have affected the issuance of the patent); (4) the reasonable examiner standard as set forth in original Rule 56 (i.e., there is a substantial likelihood that a reasonable examiner would have considered the omitted reference important in deciding patentability); and (5) the current Rule 56 standard (i.e., the information is material in the sense of establishing a prima facie case of unpatentability, or refuting or being inconsistent with a position the applicant takes regarding patentability before the USPTO). 29 According to one panel, however, because the reasonable examiner standard is the broadest of these standards, it gradually had become the sole standard invoked by this court, though in no way did it supplant or replace the case law precedent. 30 The Federal Circuit s Therasense decision, handed down in May 2011, revised the court s governing standards on materiality by holding that as a general matter, the materiality required to establish inequitable conduct is but-for materiality. 31 More specifically: 28. Exergen Corp. v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 575 F.3d 1312, 1327 n.3 (Fed. Cir. 2009) (citing Star Scientific, Inc. v. R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co., 537 F.3d 1357, 1365 (Fed. Cir. 2008)). The Federal Circuit reaffirmed this definition of inequitable conduct in Therasense. See Therasense, Inc. v. Becton, Dickinson & Co., Nos. 2008-1511, -1512, -1513, -1514, -1595, 2011 WL 2028255, at *6 (Fed. Cir. May 25, 2011) (en banc). The defendant must plead the defense with particularity pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 9(b), see Exergen, 575 F.3d at 1318, and must prove the two elements of intent and materiality by clear and convincing evidence, see Therasense, 2011 WL 2028255, at *6; Larson Mfg. Co. v. Aluminart Prods. Ltd., 559 F.3d 1317, 1344 (Fed. Cir. 2009). 29. See Digital Control Inc. v. Charles Mach. Works, 437 F.3d 1309, 1314 16 (Fed. Cir. 2006). 30. Id. at 1316. 31. Therasense, 2011 WL 2028255, at *11. Chief Judge Rader s majority opinion was joined by Judges Newman, Lourie, Linn, Moore, and Reyna. Judge O Malley filed a separate opinion concurring in the majority s resolution of the intent issue but dissenting from its resolution of materiality. Under Judge O Malley s proposed standard, conduct would be material where: (1) but for the conduct (whether it be in the form of an affirmative act or intentional non-disclosure), the patent would not have issued... ; (2) the conduct constitutes a false or misleading representation of fact (rendered so either because the statement made is false on its face or information is omitted which, if known, would render the representation false or misleading); or (3) the district court finds that the behavior is so offensive that the court is left with a firm conviction that the integrity of the PTO process as to the application at issue was wholly undermined. Id. at *20 (O Malley, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). In dissent, Judge Bryson, joined by Judges Gajarsa, Dyk, and Prost, argued for adoption of the USPTO s 1992
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 745 When an applicant fails to disclose prior art to the PTO, that prior art is but-for material if the PTO would not have allowed a claim had it been aware of the undisclosed prior art. Hence, in assessing the materiality of a withheld reference, the court must determine whether the PTO would have allowed the claim if it had been aware of the undisclosed reference. In making this patentability determination, the court should apply the preponderance of the evidence standard and give claims their broadest reasonable construction.... Often the patentability of a claim will be congruent with the validity determination if a claim is properly invalidated in district court based on the deliberately withheld reference, then that reference is necessarily material because a finding of invalidity in a district court requires clear and convincing evidence, a higher evidentiary burden than that used in prosecution at the PTO. However, even if a district court does not invalidate a claim based on a deliberately withheld reference, the reference may be material if it would have blocked patent issuance under the PTO s different evidentiary standards. 32 Two ambiguities nevertheless remain. First, it is not entirely clear from the opinion whether the majority intended to adopt the objective or the subjective but-for test as the governing standard for materiality. On the one hand, the majority s frequent use of the word would (as opposed to should ) might suggest that it was opting for the subjective test. On the other hand, the majority s further statement that a reference is necessarily material if a claim is properly invalidated in district court based on the... reference 33 would seem more consistent with the objective test; the mere fact that a court properly found the reference to be invalidating does not necessarily indicate that the actual examiner, as opposed to a hypothetical ideal examiner, would have made the same finding. 34 Second, the majority recognized an exception to the but-for rule in cases of affirmative egregious misconduct such as the filing of an unmistakably false affidavit. 35 Because the exception applies only to affirmative misrepresentations and not omissions, 36 it may have relatively infrequent application 37 though for now that conclusion is far from certain. In dissent, Judge Bryson cited the example of a submission to the PTO that purports to describe the materiality standard. See id. at *22 (Bryson, J., dissenting). 32. Id. at *11 (majority opinion) (citations omitted). 33. Id. 34. For defense of my pairing of the terms subjective but-for with the actual examiner, and of objective but-for with a hypothetical ideal examiner, see infra text accompanying note 92. 35. Therasense, 2011 WL 2028255, at *12. The majority appears to see such conduct as implicating the traditional equitable doctrine of unclean hands. See id. at *6, *12 13. 36. See id. at *12 ( Because neither mere nondisclosure of prior art references to the PTO nor failure to mention prior art references in an affidavit constitutes affirmative egregious misconduct, claims of inequitable conduct that are based on such omissions require proof of but-for materiality. ). 37. See Petherbridge et al., supra note 2, at 34 ( [O]mission... is far and away the most common form of material conduct described in Federal Circuit opinions. ).
746 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 state of the prior art but knowingly omits the closest prior art as evidence that it is often difficult to draw a line between nondisclosure and affirmative misrepresentation and predicted that [t]he distinction between affirmative acts and nondisclosure is thus apt to become fertile ground for litigation in the future, not to mention the distinction between egregious misconduct and misconduct that is assuredly less than egregious. 38 As for the intent element, over 20 years ago in Kingsdown Medical Consultants, Ltd. v. Hollister Inc., 39 the Federal Circuit held en banc that a defendant asserting inequitable conduct must prove intent to deceive and not merely gross negligence on the part of the patent applicant. 40 Subsequent case law nevertheless muddied the waters by adopting conflicting views on the precise meaning of intent to deceive. One line of Federal Circuit cases interpreted Kingsdown to mean that, while intent could be inferred from circumstantial evidence, neither gross negligence nor the materiality of the information withheld was, by itself, sufficient evidence of intent. 41 A competing line of cases held that the trier of fact could infer intent to deceive where the omitted information was highly material, the party who failed to disclose the information knew or should have known of its materiality, and that party offered no credible explanation for failing to disclose it. 42 Critics argued that this latter line of authority could not be reconciled with Kingsdown, because a knew or should have known standard would allow the trier of fact to infer intent to deceive on the basis of mere negligence (not even amounting to gross negligence). 43 Further compounding the 38. Therasense, 2011 WL 2028255, at *33 n.3 (Bryson, J., dissenting); see also id. at *18 n.3 (O Malley, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) ( If unclean hands remains available in cases of PTO misconduct, charges of unclean hands could simply supplant the very allegations of inequitable conduct the majority seeks to curb. ). 39. 863 F.2d 867 (Fed. Cir. 1988) (en banc). 40. Id. at 876. 41. See, e.g., Abbott Labs. v. Sandoz, Inc., 544 F.3d 1341, 1355 56 (Fed. Cir. 2008). 42. See, e.g., Praxair, Inc. v. ATMI, Inc., 543 F.3d 1306, 1313 14 (Fed. Cir. 2008); Ferring B.V. v. Barr Labs., Inc., 437 F.3d 1181, 1191 (Fed. Cir. 2006); cf. Cancer Research Tech. Ltd. v. Barr Labs., Inc., 625 F.3d 724, 733 34 (Fed. Cir. 2010) ( A court cannot simply infer that an applicant should have known the materiality of withheld information and thus intended to deceive the PTO because the applicant knew of the information and the information is material. A district court must find some other evidence that indicates that the applicant appreciated the information s materiality. (citation omitted)); Optium Corp. v. Emcore Corp., 603 F.3d 1313, 1321 (Fed. Cir. 2010) ( [C]onsistent precedent has rejected the notion that the materiality of a reference alone can suffice to prove deceptive intent. (citations omitted)). 43. See, e.g., Larson Mfg. Co. v. Aluminart Prods. Ltd., 559 F.3d 1317, 1343 44 (Fed. Cir. 2009) (Linn, J., concurring); Mammen, supra note 2, at 1391 92. Arguably, the knew or should have known standard was an inadvertent throwback to pre-kingsdown law. See Erik R. Puknys & Jared D. Schuettenhelm, Application of the Inequitable Conduct Doctrine After Kingsdown, 25 SANTA CLARA COMPUTER & HIGH TECH. L.J. 839, 850 51 (2009) (noting that the Federal Circuit in Critikon, Inc. v. Becton Dickinson Vascular Access, Inc., 120 F.3d 1253, 1256 (Fed. Cir. 1997), cited a pre-kingsdown case, Driscoll v. Cebalo, 731 F.2d 878 (Fed. Cir. 1984), for the knew or should have known standard);
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 747 confusion, some decisions referred to the intent and materiality standards as involving a sliding scale, in the sense that a stronger showing of intent would allow a finding of inequitable conduct on a somewhat lower showing of materiality, and vice versa. 44 Therasense has now clarified the intent to deceive element by expressly holding that the appropriate standard is specific intent to deceive, not negligence or gross negligence, 45 and by rejecting the sliding scale. 46 Recognizing that direct evidence of deceptive intent is rare, however, the Therasense majority conceded that a district court may infer intent from indirect and circumstantial evidence while also citing with approval prior case law holding that to meet the clear and convincing evidence standard, the specific intent to deceive must be the single most reasonable inference able to be drawn from the evidence indeed, the evidence must require a finding of deceitful intent in the light of all the circumstances. 47 Some ambiguity in the application of the new standard nevertheless may remain at the margin. In her concurring opinion, for example, Judge O Malley stated her understanding that a court may still consider the level of materiality as circumstantial evidence in its intent analysis, even though it must reach separate conclusions of intent and materiality and may not base a finding of specific intent to deceive on materiality alone, regardless of the level of materiality. 48 In a similar vein, Judge Bryson suggested that it remains appropriate to consider[] the degree of materiality as relevant to the issue of intent... particularly given that direct evidence of intent, such as an admission of deceptive purpose, is seldom available. 49 The majority did not respond directly to the concurring or dissenting opinion on this particular issue; thus, the question of the precise relationship between materiality and intent remains to be determined. Therasense appears to leave the inequitable conduct doctrine unchanged in all other respects. First, nothing in Therasense reverses prior case law holding that, if the defendant makes the requisite showing of both intent and materiality, the district court should engage in a balancing test to determine whether the Brett J. Thompsen, Note, Resolving Inequitable Conduct Claims According to Kingsdown, 18 TEX. INTELL. PROP. L.J. 269, 275 76 (2010) (same). 44. See, e.g., Abbott Labs. v. TorPharm, Inc., 300 F.3d 1367, 1380 (Fed. Cir. 2002); Critikon, 120 F.3d at 1256. Nevertheless, the defendant was supposed to prove by clear and convincing evidence that each element met the minimum threshold of both intent and materiality. See AstraZeneca Pharm. LP v. Teva Pharm. USA, Inc., 583 F.3d 766, 776 (Fed. Cir. 2009). For a helpful visual depiction, see Mammen, supra note 2, at 1344. 45. Therasense, Inc. v. Becton, Dickinson & Co., Nos. 2008-1511, -1512, -1513, -1514, -1595, 2011 WL 2028255, at *9 (Fed. Cir. May 25, 2011) (en banc). All eleven active members of the court agreed on this holding. Id. at *17 (O Malley, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part); id. at *22 (Bryson, J., dissenting). 46. Id. at *10 (majority opinion). All eleven judges agreed on this point as well. Id. at *17 (O Malley, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part); id. at *22 (Bryson, J., dissenting). 47. Id. at *10 (majority opinion) (quoting Kingsdown Med. Consultants, Ltd. v. Hollister Inc., 863 F.2d 867, 873 (Fed. Cir. 1988) (en banc)). 48. See id. at *17 n.1 (O Malley, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). 49. Id. at *24 n.1 (Bryson, J., dissenting).
748 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 applicant committed inequitable conduct. 50 Second, Therasense reaffirms that a district court s factual findings on intent and materiality are subject to appellate review only for clear error. 51 Third, Therasense appears to leave intact the rule that whether conduct meeting the minimal thresholds of materiality and intent should be characterized as inequitable is a matter entrusted to the district court s equitable discretion, reviewable on appeal for abuse of discretion. 52 Fourth, and most importantly, the practical significance of the doctrine continues to reside in the penalty that follows from a finding of inequitable conduct. Even after Therasense, a finding of inequitable conduct renders the entire patent 53 and sometimes even related patents 54 unenforceable. As a consequence, even when the plaintiff fails to prove infringement or the defendant succeeds in proving the invalidity of some or all of the claims at issue, a court will typically go on to consider the merits of a properly raised inequitable conduct defense. If successful, this challenge will render all of the claims of the patent unenforceable not only against the defendant who raised the defense, but also against any other potential infringer. At least in this respect, the inequitable conduct doctrine remains, in Chief Judge Rader s words, the atomic bomb of patent litigation. 55 50. See AstraZeneca Pharm. LP v. Teva Pharm. USA, Inc., 583 F.3d 766, 776 (Fed. Cir. 2009). 51. 2011 WL 2028255, at *10. 52. See id. at *24 (Bryson, J., dissenting); see also id. at *10 (majority opinion) (indicating that courts retain discretion not to find inequitable conduct, even when the threshold showings of materiality and intent are present); Abbott Labs. v. Sandoz, Inc., 544 F.3d 1341, 1353 (Fed. Cir. 2008) (quoting Kingsdown, 863 F.2d at 876). 53. 2011 WL 2028255, at *12. In addition, a finding of inequitable conduct can result in a finding that a case is exceptional and, therefore, that the defendant is entitled to attorney s fees. See id. at *8; Aspex Eyewear Inc. v. Clariti Eyewear, Inc., 605 F.3d 1305, 1315 (Fed. Cir. 2010); Taltech Ltd. v. Esquel Enters. Ltd., 604 F.3d 1324, 1328 (Fed. Cir. 2010); Wedgetail, Ltd. v. Huddleston Deluxe, Inc., 576 F.3d 1302, 1304 05 (Fed. Cir. 2009). In contrast to the misuse doctrine, the inequitable conduct doctrine does not envision any way for the patentee to purge its misconduct and thus restore the patent s enforceability. 54. On the doctrine of infectious unenforceability, compare Fox Industries v. Structural Preservation Systems, Inc., 922 F.2d 801, 804 (Fed. Cir. 1990) ( [A] breach of the duty of candor early in the prosecution may render unenforceable all claims which eventually issue from the same or a related application. ), with Baxter International, Inc. v. McGaw, Inc., 149 F.3d 1321, 1332 (Fed. Cir. 1998) ( [W]here the claims are subsequently separated from those tainted by inequitable conduct through a divisional application, and where the issued claims have no relation to the omitted prior art, the patent issued from the divisional application will not also be unenforceable due to inequitable conduct committed in the parent application. ). 55. Therasense, 2011 WL 2028255, at *8. Adoption of the objective but-for standard, however assuming that this is the standard the court has adopted, and ignoring for now the exception for affirmative misrepresentations will obviate one consequence associated with the other four materiality standards, namely the possibility of rendering a patent unenforceable by reason of the applicant s failure to disclose references that would have had no effect on validity. To illustrate, suppose that a court finds that P intentionally failed to disclose a prior art reference that, on its face, suggests that her invention may have been obvious at the time of invention to a person of ordinary skill in the art, see 35 U.S.C.
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 749 Prior to Therasense, the complexity and operation of the inequitable conduct doctrine had generated intense criticism from some members of the patent community. Critics argued that the multiplicity of possible standards, as well as the corresponding inconsistencies in the case law, often made it irresistible for defendants to avoid raising the defense. 56 In addition, some critics noted a risk of 103(a) (2006), but that P would have been able to traverse (distinguish) the reference through persuasive argument or other evidence of patentability. In such a case, under pre- Therasense law the patent may well have been valid but unenforceable as a result of P s failure to disclose the suggestive, though ultimately non-invalidating, reference. Alternatively, P may have failed to disclose information that a reasonable examiner might have considered relevant, though ultimately non-invalidating, to various other patentability requirements such as subject matter, enablement, or best mode. See infra note 63 and accompanying text. Yet another example would be information that has no bearing at all on patentability as such, but that relates instead to the inventor s entitlement to various prosecution-related benefits. Pre-Therasense, the Federal Circuit had held that misrepresentations relating to socalled petitions to make special, otherwise known as petitions for expedited examination, U.S. PATENT & TRADEMARK OFFICE, U.S. DEP T OF COMMERCE, MANUAL OF PATENT EXAMINING PROCEDURE 708.02 (Magdalen Greenlief ed., 8th ed., rev. July 2010), or to a patent owner s small entity status (rendering the applicant eligible to pay lower examination fees), could be the basis of a finding of inequitable conduct, see Scanner Techs. Corp. v. ICOS Vision Sys. Corp. N.V., 528 F.3d 1365, 1375 (Fed. Cir. 2008) ( When the setting involves a petition to make special... a false statement that succeeds in expediting the application is, as a matter of law, material for purposes of assessing the issue of inequitable conduct. (footnote omitted)); Nilssen v. Osram Sylvania, Inc., 504 F.3d 1223, 1231 32 (Fed. Cir. 2007) ( While a misrepresentation of small entity status is not strictly speaking inequitable conduct in the prosecution of a patent, as the patent has already issued if maintenance fees are payable (excepting an issue fee), it is not beyond the authority of a district court to hold a patent unenforceable for inequitable conduct in misrepresenting one s status as justifying small entity maintenance payments. (citation omitted)); see also Ulead Sys., Inc. v. Lex Computer & Mgmt. Corp., 351 F.3d 1139, 1144 (Fed. Cir. 2003) ( Historically issues of unenforceability have arisen in cases involving inequitable conduct occurring in the prosecution of patents. But, we see no reason why the doctrine should not extend into other contexts, like the present one, where the allegation is that inequitable conduct has occurred after the patent has issued and during the course of establishing and paying the appropriate maintenance fee. In this context, it is equally important that the PTO receive accurate information from those who practice before it. (citation omitted)). The court had also held that failure to disclose related litigation involving a parent patent, as required under 2001.06(c) of the Manual of Patent Examining Procedure, was material even if the patentee prevailed in that litigation. Leviton Mfg. Co. v. Universal Sec. Instruments, Inc., 606 F.3d 1353, 1362 (Fed. Cir. 2010); see also McKesson Info. Solutions, Inc. v. Bridge Med., Inc., 487 F.3d 897, 919 26 (Fed. Cir. 2007) (affirming findings of materiality and intent with respect to failures to disclose rejections in co-pending application, and examiner s own prior allowance of claims in a related application). Presumably the holdings in the cases cited in this paragraph survive Therasense where the applicant has engaged in affirmative misrepresentations, but not where the applicant merely fails to disclose. 56. See Larson Mfg. Co. v. Aluminart Prods. Ltd., 559 F.3d 1317, 1342 (Fed. Cir. 2009) (Linn, J., concurring); see also NAT L RESEARCH COUNCIL, supra note 2, at 122; Cotropia, supra note 2, at 739 41; Wasserman, supra note 2, at 14 15. While few observers would defend an inventor s right to make affirmative misrepresentations to the patent office, as noted above, the vast majority of inequitable conduct allegations related to the broader,
750 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 hindsight bias in determining, at the time of trial, whether the applicant knew at the time of prosecution that information she chose to withhold was material; attempts to explain, during the course of litigation many years later, why the information did not appear material at the time of prosecution may sound unconvincing. 57 Others contended that the doctrine induced patent applicants to disclose far more information than was necessary indeed, more than a patent examiner could be expected to review and comprehend simply to reduce the probability of a subsequent finding of inequitable conduct. 58 As a consequence, the doctrine may have raised the cost of litigation by encouraging accused infringers to conduct fishing expeditions to determine whether the patentee failed to call some arguably relevant piece of information to the attention of the patent examiner. 59 At the very least, if the critics were right, an overly expansive inequitable conduct doctrine raised the cost of patent prosecution to some degree, often with very little corresponding social benefit. There are other criticisms related to the all-or-nothing nature of the penalty for inequitable conduct. Several observers have argued that rendering all claims of the affected patent unenforceable including claims that themselves were unrelated to the alleged fraud, and potentially even claims of other, related and less easily containable, category of failures to disclose material information. See supra note 37 and accompanying text. 57. See Feldman, supra note 2, at 17, 20 22; Murphy, supra note 2, at 2274. 58. See, e.g., S. REP. NO. 110-259, at 32 n.152 (2008); FED. TRADE COMM N, supra note 2, at 11 12; SECTION OF INTELLECTUAL PROP. LAW, AM. BAR ASS N, supra note 2, at 2; Armitage, supra note 2, at 2 3; Cotropia, supra note 2, at 770 73 (discussing information overload); Hatch, supra note 2, at 516 (referring to the production of boxes of documents); Brown, supra note 2, at 618 20 (describing testimony presented at Patent Reform Act hearings); Murphy, supra note 2, at 2293. The majority in Therasense accorded this purported overdisclosure phenomenon considerable weight in its decision to alter the materiality standard. 2011 WL 2028255, at *9. But see McGowan, supra note 2, at 979 (questioning the information overload argument); Petherbridge et al., supra note 2, at 41, 54 55 (noting reasons applicants may choose not to disclose, notwithstanding the risk of unenforceability, and questioning whether burdensome disclosure obligations provide a compelling reason for substantially modifying the doctrine); Christopher A. Cotropia et al., Do Applicant Patent Citations Matter? Implications for the Presumption of Validity 15 16, 19 25 (Stanford Law & Econ., Working Paper No. 401, 2010), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1656568 (presenting empirical evidence that examiners tend to ignore applicant-submitted art, even when it is likely to be relevant to patentability). 59. See SECTION OF INTELLECTUAL PROP. LAW, AM. BAR ASS N, supra note 2, at 2; Armitage, supra note 2, at 2. A more subtle consequence is that fears of incurring a charge of inequitable conduct may discourage some patent applicants from filing so-called Rule 131 affidavits. See Dennis D. Crouch, Is Novelty Obsolete? Chronicling the Irrelevance of the Invention Date in U.S. Patent Law, 16 MICH. TELECOMM. & TECH. L. REV. 53, 97 98 (2009). Patent Rule 131 allows the applicant to swear behind a prior art reference that is, to assert a date of invention prior to a reference that otherwise may anticipate or render obvious the applicant s invention and thus helps to promote the U.S. policy of awarding patents to the first to invent (as opposed to the first to file rule the rest of the world follows). In this respect, an expansive or uncertain inequitable conduct doctrine would tend to undermine one aspect of U.S. patent policy. I thank Rebecca Eisenberg for bringing this point to my attention.
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 751 patents is often disproportionate to the magnitude of the offense, 60 and that a more sensible approach would permit courts to select from a range of penalties (e.g., partial enforceability, temporary enforceability, awarding damages only, or assessing attorney sanctions only). 61 In her concurring opinion in Therasense, Judge O Malley argues in favor of this option, 62 though perhaps the definitions of materiality and intent adopted in the majority opinion will reduce this reform s perceived urgency. 63 As suggested above, however, even after Therasense several 60. See New Medium LLC v. Barco N.V., 582 F. Supp. 2d 991, 999 (N.D. Ill. 2008) (Posner, J., sitting by designation), vacated by agreement of parties, No. 05 C 5620, 2009 WL 2385890 (N.D. Ill. May 15, 2009); Armitage, supra note 2, at 1; Wasserman, supra note 2, at 17 18; Murphy, supra note 2, at 2274. 61. See, e.g., S. REP. NO. 110-259, at 33 (2008); McElhone, supra note 2, at 408 09; McGowan, supra note 2, at 979 80; Murphy, supra note 2, at 2296 2302; see also Wasserman, supra note 2, at 18 22 (proposing a second tier of remedies for less offensive behavior ). 62. 2011 WL 2028255, at *19 (O Malley, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) ( We should recognize that determining the proper remedy for a given instance of inequitable conduct is within the discretion of district courts.... [A] district court may choose to render fewer than all claims unenforceable... simply dismiss the action before it, or... fashion some other reasonable remedy, so long as the remedy imposed by the court is commensurate with the violation. (citation omitted)). 63. Under pre-therasense doctrine, a finding of inequitable conduct could sometimes result from what might be termed near-misses, that is, from the applicant s failure to disclose information that almost would have had a bearing on patentability. To illustrate, suppose that an applicant intentionally failed to disclose some piece of information that arguably could be deemed relevant to carrying out her best mode of practicing the invention, but ultimately the defendant was unable to prove a best mode violation by the requisite clear and convincing evidence. Because compliance with the best mode requirement is a necessary precondition to a valid patent, intentionally withholding one s best mode can constitute a material omission and thus qualify as inequitable conduct. See Consol. Aluminum Corp. v. Foseco Int l Ltd., 910 F.2d 804, 808 09 (Fed. Cir. 1990). And, while the applicant s failure to disclose in this hypothetical would not be deemed material under an objective but-for test or, most likely, under the 1992 version of Rule 56, the question could be close enough that the examiner would have rejected the application, had she known the facts (materiality standard 2); failure to disclose may have affected issuance of the patent (materiality standard 3); and a reasonable examiner might have considered the omitted information important (materiality standard 4). Thus, it is possible that the omission might have constituted inequitable conduct, even if there is no actual best mode violation (and even though questions of compliance with the best mode requirement rarely arise during patent prosecution). See U.S. PATENT & TRADEMARK OFFICE, U.S. DEP T OF COMMERCE, supra note 55, 2165.03 ( It is extremely rare that a best mode rejection properly would be made in ex parte prosecution. The information that is necessary to form the basis for a rejection based on the failure to set forth the best mode is rarely accessible to the examiner, but is generally uncovered during discovery procedures in interference, litigation, or other inter partes proceedings. ). Given the criticism that some observers have leveled against the best mode doctrine generally, see NAT L RESEARCH COUNCIL, supra note 2, at 120 21 (suggesting that that the penalty of invalidity is often disproportionate to the value of the withheld information, given that the inventor s best mode as of the date of filing may have little relevance to the practice of the invention many years later, and the absence of a best mode doctrine in any other country s patent system), one might question
752 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 issues surrounding the definitions of materiality and intent remain undetermined; nor is it clear that Therasense itself will be the last word on materiality and intent. The need for a clearer analytical framework remains. II. A FORMAL MODEL OF THE INEQUITABLE CONDUCT DOCTRINE Although a more traditional view would locate the inequitable conduct doctrine in considerations of ethics and as the name of the doctrine implies equity, from an economic perspective the doctrine can be thought of as a tool for encouraging patent applicants and their agents to disclose information to the USPTO. 64 More precisely, in theory, the doctrine could serve the purpose of inducing the efficient disclosure of information that is relevant to patentability (and perhaps other information as well, as discussed below). In this Part, I first present a model of a socially optimal inequitable conduct doctrine. I then model the applicant s incentive to disclose material information, as well as various possible definitions of materiality, intent, and balancing. A. A Socially Optimal Inequitable Conduct Doctrine To model a socially optimal inequitable conduct doctrine requires consideration of two key points. First, the doctrine should induce the applicant to disclose a preexisting, 65 relevant 66 unit 67 of information I a potential prior art whether it would ever make sense to allow accused infringers to leverage unsuccessful best mode defenses into successful inequitable conduct defenses. 64. See Cotropia, supra note 2, at 754; McGowan, supra note 2, at 974. 65. In other words, the model above focuses on the more common situation of alleged inequitable conduct arising from an applicant s failure to disclose existing information, rather than from her affirmative misrepresentation or fabrication of evidence. Penalizing the latter species of inequitable conduct poses fewer problems from a utilitarian perspective, insofar as there is, presumably, no social benefit (and potentially considerable private and social costs) from manufacturing evidence though whether unenforceability is always the appropriate penalty even in this instance, particularly given the risk of judicial error, is a difficult question. Not every misrepresentation relates to patentability after all. See supra note 55 (discussing misrepresentations as to small entity status and petitions to make special). Of course, an applicant who misrepresents some material fact is also, by necessity, failing to disclose relevant information of which she is aware (i.e., the true state of the world as she understands it to be). In this sense, every misrepresentation also involves a nondisclosure. 66. As the discussion below indicates, deciding what type of information should be deemed relevant for purposes of the inequitable conduct doctrine formally, what information comprises the set S discussed in the text above is not easy. The 1992 version of Patent Rule 56 adopts a fairly narrow definition of relevance, for example, whereas the reasonable examiner standard adopts a much broader one. Cf. FED. R. CIV. P. 26(b)(1) (generally authorizing the discovery of relevant evidence, even if not admissible at trial, if its discovery appears reasonably calculated to lead to the discovery of admissible evidence ); FED. R. EVID. 401 (defining relevant evidence as having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence... more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence ); FED. R. EVID. 403 (authorizing courts to exclude relevant evidence if its probative value is substantially outweighed by... considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence ). Analogously, one could define the universe of information within set S as including, for example, all
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 753 reference, for example, or information that could assist in enabling a person of skill in the art to make or use the invention or to practice the inventor s best mode only if it is less costly for the applicant to disclose the information than it would be for the examiner to find it herself. 68 Second, on the assumption that the applicant does enjoy a cost advantage over the examiner with respect to some set of information I, the doctrine should induce disclosure only if, in addition, the social benefit of disclosure (in terms of reducing the risk of issuing an invalid patent) outweighs the social cost (in terms of processing information of only marginal relevance). As for the first point, formally the goal would be to design a standard that would induce Applicant to reveal information I at time t 1 whenever and P Exam I S x, (1) C App < C Exam, (2) where t 1 is the date of filing; P Exam I S is the probability the examiner would conclude that I falls into set S; C App is Applicant s cost of disclosing I; and C Exam is the examiner s cost of discovering I. 69 Three obvious questions which I will merely note for now, but which will also be relevant to the inequitable conduct doctrine s definition of materiality, as presented below 70 are (1) whether P Exam should refer to the probability assigned by the actual examiner or by some hypothetical examiner; (2) what sort of information comprises set S; and (3) the value of x. One matter to consider at this stage is whether the law would be improved if the standard for inequitable conduct simply mirrored these criteria, properly information that renders the patentability of the invention even slightly more or less probable, or only information that is likely to affect patentability; one could include information that reasonably could lead to the discovery of such information, or exclude information that is cumulative; and so on. 67. The model proposes focusing on units of information such as individual prior art references, rather than on larger aggregation of information (the proverbial boxloads of documents that applicants sometimes submit in connection with IDSs, see Hatch, supra note 2, at 516). One reason to focus on individual documents is that this is what the courts do in deciding whether a failure to disclose a specific reference constitutes inequitable conduct. To be sure, individual applicants and their agents may not always have a specific probability estimate as to the materiality of each such item of information; perhaps their probability assessments operate at a rougher level of, say, classes or types of information. If so, one might think of the probability corresponding to a given unit of information I as applying to all such information within a given class of similar information. See infra note 84. 68. See Cotropia, supra note 2, at 754, 756. 69. As noted in Part I, disclosure may take the form of inclusion of I in the application s written description (e.g., an enabling or best mode disclosure) or in an IDS. The latter may include information on possibly relevant prior art, inventorship, or other matters affecting patentability. Finally, as the term is used above, disclosure may mean not misrepresenting or concealing facts relating to one s entitlement to certain privileges such as small entity status or expedited examination (a petition to make special). 70. See infra Part II.C.
754 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 defined. 71 Some version of Expression (1), as discussed below, already constitutes part of the materiality inquiry under current law. 72 Incorporating Expression (2) as a doctrinal requirement, however, seems impracticable. Taken literally, Expression (2) would require the applicant to disclose I whenever it would be cheaper for the applicant to disclose I than for the examiner to discover I; presumably this would include some instances in which the applicant was not initially aware of I but, through the exercise of reasonable effort, could have discovered (and disclosed) I more cheaply than the examiner could have discovered it on his own. As such, Expression (2) would contravene patent law s traditional reluctance to impose upon applicants a duty to search for prior art of which they are not aware. Whether imposing a duty to search would be desirable is debatable; 73 but for the foreseeable future, the creation of such a duty would seem to be an unlikely development in patent law. 74 Second, even if it were possible to implement a duty to search, determining whether the applicant or the examiner was the lower-cost discoverer of information of which the applicant was not initially aware would surely be difficult to determine in many cases. From a practical standpoint, such a standard may not be much of an improvement over existing doctrine, at least as far as certainty and predictability are concerned. To overcome these problems, one might instead define C App as the cost to the applicant of disclosing relevant information of which she is aware; in such a case, one would expect the applicant to be the lower-cost information provider. 75 Invoking the inequitable conduct doctrine whenever Expression (1) and (as reinterpreted) Expression (2) are satisfied, therefore, might be viewed as the best attainable means of inducing the lower-cost party to disclose relevant information, even if such a standard falls short of the ideal. This standard would likely fall even shorter of the ideal, however, given the difficulty and ambiguity (in some cases) of determining whether the applicant was aware of information I. Depending on how the term knowledge is defined, such a standard could generate substantial 71. That is, one would still need to specify from whose point of view, and at what time, P E would be determined; the content of S; and the value of x. 72. See infra Part II.C. 73. See, e.g., FED. TRADE COMM N, supra note 2, ch. 5, at 11 (reviewing competing views, and deciding not to recommend such a duty); Cotropia, supra note 2, at 779 81 (arguing against imposing such a duty). 74. See FED. TRADE COMM N, supra note 2, ch. 5, at 11 (noting commentators skepticism over proposals to impose a duty to search). Although the 2007 Patent Reform bills would have authorized the USPTO to impose a duty to search, the more recent bills would not create such a duty; and to my knowledge no foreign patent system imposes such a duty on applicants either. Moreover, as Christopher Cotropia notes, the imposition of a duty to search is hard to reconcile with other proposals designed to make the inequitable conduct doctrine less costly in its implementation. See Cotropia, supra note 2, at 744 46. 75. See Cotropia, supra note 2, at 754. But see Feldman, supra note 2, at 23 ( Perhaps the burden of providing extensive prior art information rests too heavily on the shoulders of the patent applicant, who is not in the best position psychologically to bear that burden.... The solution may lie in finding others in the system who are better situated to provide that perspective, either by allowing earlier intervention from adversaries or beefing up the resources of the administrative experts. ).
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 755 administrative costs and thus undermine its proposed cost-saving rationale. 76 Perhaps more problematically, a requirement that applicants disclose any relevant information of which they are aware could discourage some applicants from exposing themselves to potential prior art. Analogous problems once arose in connection with the law of enhanced damages, where, until recently, an accused infringer s mere pre-infringement exposure to the patent at issue potentially rendered the defendant liable for treble damages. 77 Partly in response to criticism that this standard discouraged firms from reading patents, the Federal Circuit in 2007 held that patentees must prove both objective and subjective recklessness as a precondition to a damages enhancement. 78 In the present context, requiring the defendant to prove more than mere knowledge on the part of the patentee as a precondition to a finding of inequitable conduct similarly might be viewed as a means for reducing the risk of abuse (in this case, on the part of defendants and not patentees), though at the cost of moving yet further away from any clear relationship to the policy of inducing the lower-cost party to disclose. As for the second key point maximizing the social benefit of the applicant s disclosure over the social cost the relevant inquiry can be illustrated graphically. Figure 1 illustrates the difference between the privately and socially optimal levels of disclosure in a system that induces some degree of overdisclosure. (As noted above, critics argued that pre-therasense doctrine had precisely this effect. Figure 1 therefore should be viewed as a reflection of reality, only if the doctrine s critics were right.) The x-axis denotes the quantity of relevant 79 information of which the applicant is aware and which she discloses, 80 76. For example, would knowledge on the part of a low-ranking corporate employee constitute knowledge on the part of the corporate assignee? Would an employee s mere exposure to an existing patent impute constructive knowledge, on the part of the employer, of the patent as prior art? In practice, the Rule 56 duty of candor extends only to [i]ndividuals associated with the filing and prosecution of a patent application, 37 C.F.R. 1.56(c) (2009) (emphasis added); even so, questions do arise from time to time concerning whether the duty of disclosure extended to the person who allegedly violated it, see, e.g., Avid Identification Sys., Inc. v. Crystal Imp. Corp., 603 F.3d 967, 973 77 (Fed. Cir. 2010) (affirming finding that company president was substantively involved in prosecution and therefore subject to the duty of candor). For somewhat differing perspectives on the question of who should be subject to the duty, compare Mack, supra note 2, at 160 61, 173 74 (arguing in favor of retaining rule under which knowledge on the part of the patent owner s representatives is imputed to the patent owner), with Armitage, supra note 2, at 2 3 (lamenting that, under current doctrine, innocent patent assignees sometimes wind up suffering for applicants misdeeds). 77. See Thomas F. Cotter, An Economic Analysis of Enhanced Damages and Attorney s Fees for Willful Patent Infringement, 14 FED. CIR. B.J. 291, 299 300 (2004) (noting that some commentators have suggested that the [then-existing] rules might make some companies reluctant to permit their employees to review patents ). 78. See In re Seagate Tech., LLC, 497 F.3d 1360, 1371 (Fed. Cir. 2007) (en banc). But see Global-Tech Appliances, Inc. v. SEB S.A., 131 S. Ct. 2060, 2069 (2011) (holding that willful blindness to the existence of a patent can satisfy the state of mind requirement for inducement liability under 35 U.S.C. 271(b) (2006)). 79. More precisely, as one moves along the x-axis, the information remains relevant in the Federal Rules of Evidence context, see supra note 66, but its relevance diminishes or the information becomes increasingly cumulative.
756 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 and with respect to which she has a cost advantage over the examiner; the y-axis denotes some unit of value. Curve U S illustrates the social utility of disclosure. Initially, the disclosure of additional units of relevant information increases U S, but the marginal social benefits of disclosure outpace the marginal social costs only up to Q * ; as additional units of information are disclosed, social utility declines as the marginal costs begin to outweigh the benefits. 81 From the applicant s private perspective, however, disclosure makes sense as long as the marginal benefits to the applicant 82 outweigh the applicant s marginal costs. The applicant therefore will disclose up to Q **, the point at which the applicant s utility from disclosure (U App ) is at a maximum (i.e., the surplus of private benefits over private costs is at a maximum). The region in between Q * and Q ** denotes information the disclosure of which maximizes the applicant s expected private utility but detracts from social utility; its disclosure, in other words, is socially inefficient. Ideally, the inequitable conduct doctrine would reduce the difference between Q * and Q ** to zero by aligning the private and social costs and benefits of disclosure. 83 Put another way, the goal of the inequitable conduct doctrine would be to ensure that du S /dq = 0. (3) As with the cost comparison approach above, however, it is probably not feasible to attempt to estimate the relevant variable (here, du S /dq). The analysis nevertheless suggests a way of thinking about the relevant policy issue that underlies the inequitable conduct doctrine; it also further illustrates the gap between the policy ideal and what may be practically attainable. 80. Alternatively, one could consider the social utility attributable to the disclosure of information whether the applicant is initially aware of the information or not; this would enable modeling of a duty to search. As discussed above, however, the imposition of such a duty appears to me to be an unlikely development. But see Doug Lichtman & Mark A. Lemley, Rethinking Patent Law s Presumption of Validity, 60 STAN. L. REV. 45, 61 62 (2007) (proposing a voluntary, supplementary review process that would allow applicants to submit their own prior art searches in return for a stronger presumption of validity). 81. These costs include both the private cost to the applicant and any cost incurred by the examiner or third parties in processing the additional information. As noted above, however, one recent study casts doubt on the proposition that examiners are suffering from the effects of information overload ; on average, they appear not to devote substantial attention to applicant-submitted prior art even when there is reason to believe it may be relevant. See Cotropia et al., supra note 58. 82. These marginal benefits include whatever additional revenue the applicant is likely to derive from disclosure, as modeled in the text above. 83. Much of the criticism of pre-therasense inequitable conduct doctrine was premised on the belief that this difference was often substantial. See supra notes 58 59 and accompanying text.
2011] INEQUITABLE CONDUCT 757 Figure 1 B. Modeling an Applicant s Incentive to Disclose From a more pragmatic perspective, in deciding whether to reveal a discrete unit of information I at t 1, Applicant will consider her expected return from patenting if she discloses I versus her expected return if she does not. A rational applicant s decisionmaking process will depend on several considerations. 84 One set of factors to consider is Applicant s subjective probability that the existence of I affects the validity of one or more of Applicant s desired claims, as well as the probability that Applicant s nondisclosure of I amounts to inequitable conduct under the governing legal standard. More precisely, we can define P(A) as Applicant s subjective probability that I, if disclosed or discovered, would affect the validity of one or more of her desired claims (and thus P(Not-A) = 1 P(A) = Applicant s subjective probability that I would not affect the validity of any of her desired claims), and P(B) as Applicant s subjective probability that her failure to disclose I, if such failure were discovered, would constitute inequitable conduct (and thus P(Not-B) = 1 P(B) = Applicant s subjective probability that the failure to disclose I would not constitute inequitable 84. In reality, the lawyers and agents that draft patent applications may not consciously take all of the variables discussed above into account in deciding whether to disclose a given piece of information to the USPTO; they may rely on best practices concerning types of information to disclose rather than making individualized judgments about each and every I (though individual judgment may be brought to bear with respect to whether to provide less commonly encountered types of references). Nevertheless, one would expect agents decisions at least implicitly to reflect their understanding of the consequences, as modeled above, of disclosing or not disclosing certain individual references or categories of references, and to adjust over time with changes in the governing case law. I thank Dennis Crouch and John Golden for bringing this point to my attention.
758 ARIZONA LAW REVIEW [VOL. 53:735 conduct). 85 (Recall from Part I above that, both pre- and post-therasense, information sometimes may be material but non-invalidating.) Figure 2 illustrates the relationships between these variables though not necessarily the relative size of each set, which can vary depending on the applicable legal standards. Figure 2 Applicant s decisionmaking process also must take into account, however, the probabilities that, if she does not disclose I, a third party (the examiner, an accused infringer, a potential licensee, or some other interested third party) subsequently will discover (1) I s existence, and (2) Applicant s intentional nondisclosure of I. Formally, we can define P(d E ) as Applicant s subjective probability that a third party will subsequently (i.e., at time t 1+n ) discover I s existence, and P(d ND ) as Applicant s subjective probability that a third party subsequently will discover that Applicant intentionally failed to disclose I. 86 Applicant then can estimate the present value of revenue R, net of costs, to be gained under each possible combination of P(A), P(B), P(d E ), and P(d ND ). 87 For 85. P(Not-A Not-B) = P(Not-A) x P(Not-B Not-A) therefore is Applicant s subjective probability that I does not affect validity and that the failure to disclose I does not constitute inequitable conduct. P(Not-A B) = P(Not-A) x P(B Not-A) is Applicant s subjective probability that I does not affect validity but that the failure to disclose I constitutes inequitable conduct. P(A Not-B) = P(A) x P(Not-B A) is Applicant s subjective probability that I affects validity but that failure to disclose I does not constitute inequitable conduct. 86. Conceivably, P(d E ) could be related to the amount of information disclosed. That is, if Q** in Figure 1 exceeds some critical value, perhaps P(d E ) goes down due to some sort of needle in a haystack effect. See infra note 91. If examiners typically pay little attention to applicant-submitted prior art, however, regardless of its quantity or quality, this effect may be minimal. 87. With four variables to consider, the various combinations cannot be illustrated in a two-dimensional Venn diagram as in Figure 2 above.