THE ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM

THE ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM Seventh Edition Gary Slapper, LLB, LLM, PhD, PGCE (Law) Professor of Law, and Director of the Centre for Law, The Open University David Kelly, BA, BA (Law), PhD Principal Lecturer in Law, Staffordshire University Cavendish Publishing Limited London Sydney Portland, Oregon

CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments Table of Cases Table of Statutes Table of Statutory Instruments Table of EC Legislation Table of Abbreviations v vn xj x xxx{ xxxix x\[ x\{a CHAPTER 1: LAW AND LEGAL STUDY 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 THE NATURE OF LAW 1 1.3 CATEGORIES OF LAW 2 1.3.1 Common law and civil law 3 1.3.2 Common law and equity 3 1.3.3 Common law and statute law 5 1.3.4 Private law and public law 5 1.3.5 Civil law and criminal law 6 1.4 THE SEPARATION OF POWERS 9 1.4.1 Parliamentary sovereignty 10 1.4.2 Judicial independence 11 1.4.3 Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards 13 1.5 THE RULE OF LAW 14 1.5.1 AV Dicey 15 1.5.2 FA von Hayek 16 1.5.3 EP Thompson 18 1.5.4 Joseph Raz 19 1.5.5 Roberto Unger 20 1.5.6 Max Weber 20 1.5.7 The Rule of Law and the contemporary form of law 21 1.6 HUMAN RIGHTS DISCOURSE AND THE RULE OF LAW 22 1.7 THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998 23 1.7.1 Judicial interpretation and application of the Human Rights Act 29 1.7.2 The sentencing process, the separation of powers and the HRA 41 59 CHAPTER 2: SOURCES OF LAW 63 2.1 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY 63 2.2 LEGISLATION 63 2.2.1 The pre-parliamentary process 64 2.2.2 The legislative process 65 2.2.3 The drafting of legislation 68 2.2.4 Types of legislation 69 2.2.5 Delegated or subordinate legislation 71 2.2.6 Advantages in the use of delegated legislation 72 2.2.7 Disadvantages in the prevalence of delegated legislation 73 2.3 CASE LAW 75

The English Legal System 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.3.1 Precedent 2.3.2 Law reporting 2.3.3 Precedent within the hierarchy of the courts 2.3.4 Binding precedent 2.3.5 Advantages of case law 2.3.6 Disadvantages of case law BOOKS OF AUTHORITY CUSTOM LAW REFORM CHAPTER 3: THE CIVIL COURT STRUCTURE 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 THE COURT SERVICE MAGISTRATES' COURTS COUNTY COURTS THE HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE 3.4.1 The Queen's Bench Division 3.4.2 The Queen's Bench Divisional Court 3.4.3 The Chancery Division 3.4.4 The Chancery Divisional Court 3.4.5 The Family Division 3.4.6 The Family Divisional Court APPEALS FROM THE HIGH COURT THE COURT OF APPEAL (CIVTL DIVISION) REFORMS TO THE APPEAL PROCESS 3.7.1 Background 3.7.2 Changes made by the Access to Justice Act 1999 (Part IV) 3.7.3 Right to appeal 3.7.4 Destination of appeals 3.7.5 Civil Division of Court of Appeal 3.7.6 Jurisdiction of single judge of High Court 3.7.7 The Civil Procedure Rules 3.7.8 The Courts Act 2003 THE HOUSE OF LORDS THE EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL CIVIL COURT FEES CHAPTER 4: THE CRIMINAL COURT STRUCTURE 4.1 4.2 4.3 CORONERS' COURTS THE CRIMINAL TRIAL COURTS MAGISTRATES' COURTS 4.3.1 Summary trial 4.3.2 Offences triable 'either way' 4.3.3 Youth Courts 4.3.4 Indictable offences - committal proceedings 4.3.5 The Access to Justice Act 1999 - magistrates' courts 75 75 81 90 94 97 101 101 103 107 109 111 112 112 113 115 116 116 117 117 117 117 117 119 119 120 120 121 122 122 122 123 125 126 128 128 129 131 135 135 136 137 138 140 145 147 150

Contents 4.4 THE CROWN COURT 4.4.1 The judges 4.4.2 Jurisdiction 4.4.3 Delay 4.4.4 Magistrates' courts v Crown Courts 4.5 CRIMINAL APPEALS 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 4.5.5 4.5.6 4.6 4.7 Appeals from magistrates' courts Appeals from the Crown Court The Access to Justice Act 1999 - jurisdiction Judicial Committee of the Privy Council Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Criminal Cases Review Commission A MISCARRIAGE OF JUSTICE REFORM OF THE CRIMINAL COURTS 156 157 158 158 159 160 160 160 168 169 169 170 172 174 183 CHAPTER 5: JUDICIAL REASONING 185 5.1 INTRODUCTION 185 5.1.1 Law and logic 185 5.2 REASONING IN GENERAL 186 5.2.1 Deductive reasoning 187 5.2.2 Inductive reasoning 188 5.2.3 Reasoning by analogy 189 5.3 JUDICIAL REASONING 189 5.3.1 The syllogism in law 189 5.3.2 The logical form of precedent 190 5.4 STATUTORY INTERPRETATION 191 5.4.1 Problems in interpreting legislation 192 5.4.2 Approaches to statutory interpretation 193 5.4.3 Rules of interpretation 194 5.4.4 Legal reasoning and the regulation of abortion: a case study 200 5.4.5 Aids to construction 202 5.4.6 Presumptions 205 5.5 LEGAL REASONING AND THE POSSIBILITY OF RAPE WITHIN MARRIAGE: A CASE STUDY 210 5.6 LEGAL REASONING AND RHETORIC 213 217 CHAPTER 6: THE JUDICIARY 219 6.1 THE CONSTITUTIONAL ROLE OF THE JUDICIARY 219 6.1.1 The constitutional role of the Lord Chancellor 220 6.1.2 The constitution and the role of the House of Lords 225 6.1.3 Judicial impartiality 229 6.2 JUDICIAL OFFICES 234 6.2.1 Judicial hierarchy 236 6.2.2 Legal offices 237 6.3 APPOINTMENT OF JUDICIARY 238 6.3.1 Qualifications 239 6.3.2 Selection of judges 240

The English Legal System 6.4 TRAINING OF THE JUDICIARY 249 6.4.1 Equal treatment training 250 6.5 RETIREMENT OF JUDGES 254 6.6 REMOVAL OF JUDGES 255 6.6.1 The Constitutional Reform Bill 256 6.7 JUDICIAL IMMUNITY FROM SUIT 256 6.8 MAGISTRATES 258 6.8.1 Appointment 260 6.8.2 The future of the magistrates' courts 262 6.9 JUDICIAL REVIEW 264 6.9.1 Private law remedies 265 6.9.2 The prerogative orders 265 6.9.3 Grounds for application for judicial review 267 6.9.4 The exclusion of judicial review 268 6.10 POLITICS AND THE JUDICIARY 270 6.10.1 Sentencing policy 270 6.10.2 The politics of judicial review and the Human Rights Act 272 6.11 POLITICS OF THE JUDICIARY 280 6.11.1 Criticisms 282 6.11.2 The politics of judicial inquiries 285 289 CHAPTER 7: THE CIVIL PROCESS 293 7.1 THE NEED FOR REFORM 293 7.2 THE NEW CIVIL PROCESS 299 7.2.1 The Civil Procedure Rules 300 7.2.2 The overriding objective (CPR Part 1) 300 7.2.3 Practice directions 301 7.2.4 Pre-action protocols 301 7.3 CASE CONTROL (CPR PART 3) 303 7.3.1 Case management conferences 305 7.3.2 Pre-trial reviews 306 7.3.3 Stays for settlement (CPR Part 26) and settlements (CPR Part 36) 306 7.3.4 Applications to be made when claims come before a judge (CPR Part 1) 307 7.3.5 Witness statements (CPR Part 34) 307 7.3.6 Experts (CPR Part 35) 308 7.4 COURT AND TRACK ALLOCATION (CPR PART 26) 308 7.4.1 The small claims track (CPR Part 27) 309 7.4.2 The fast track (CPR Part 28) 311 7.4.3 The multi-track (CPR Part 29) 311 7.5 DOCUMENTATION AND PROCEDURES 312 7.5.1 How to start proceedings - the claim form (CPR Part 7) 312 7.5.2 Alternative procedure for claims (CPR Part 8) 312 7.5.3 Statement of case-value (CPR Part 16) 313 7.5.4 Statement of case - particulars of claim (CPR Part 16) 313 7.5.5 Statements of truth (CPR Part 22) 314

Contents 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.5.6 Response to particulars of claim (CPR Part 9) 7.5.7 Service (CPR Part 6) 7.5.8 Admissions and part admissions (CPR Part 14) 7.5.9 Defence and automatic transfer (CPR Part 26) 7.5.10 Allocation questionnaire (Form N150) 7.5.11 Default judgment (CPR Part 12) 7.5.12 Summary judgment (CPR Part 24) PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HEARINGS (CPR PART 39) APPEALS (CPR PART 52) REMEDIES DAMAGES 7.9.1 Types of damages 7.9.2 Damages in contract 7.9.3 Damages in tort EQUITABLE REMEDIES COURT FEES COSTS (CPR PARTS 44-48) WHAT HAS THE NEW SYSTEM ACHIEVED? THE DIVISION OF WORK BETWEEN THE HIGH COURT AND COUNTY COURTS AFTER THE WOOLF REFORMS DO WE NEED TWO SORTS OF COURT AFTER WOOLF? ENFORCEMENT OF CIVIL REMEDIES CHAPTER 8: ARBITRATION, TRIBUNAL ADJUDICATION AND ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION 8.1 8.2 INTRODUCTION ARBITRATION 8.2.1 Procedure 8.2.2 Relationship to ordinary courts 8.2.3 Advantages 8.2.4 Small claims procedure in the county court 8.2.5 Arbitration under Codes of Conduct 8.3 ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS 8.3.1 Tribunals and courts 8.3.2 Composition of tribunals 8.3.3 Statutory tribunals 8.3.4 Immigration and asylum appeals procedure 8.3.5 Domestic tribunals 8.3.6 Advantages of tribunals 8.3.7 Disadvantages of tribunals 8.3.8 The Leggatt Review of Tribunals 1.4 OMBUDSMAN 8.4.1 Procedure 8.4.2 Freedom of information 8.4.3 Evaluation 5.5 MEDIATION AND CONCILIATION 8.5.1 Mediation 315 315 316 317 317 318 318 319 319 320 320 320 321 323 324 325 326 326 330 331 332 335 343 343 347 348 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 360 362 363 364 365 367 369 372 373 375 375

The English Legal System 8.5.2 Mediation in divorce 8.5.3 Conciliation CHAPTER 9: THE CRIMINAL PROCESS: (1) THE INVESTIGATION OF CRIME 9.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE CRIMINAL PROCESS 9.1.1 The criminal justice system in the 21st century 9.2 MISTRUST OF THE SYSTEM 9.2.1 The Macpherson Report 9.2.2 Lack of confidence in the system 9.2.3 A contradiction 9.2.4 Contemporary issues 9.3 ARREST 9.3.1 Remedies for unlawful arrest 9.3.2 General powers of arrest 9.3.3 Arrest under warrant 9.3.4 Common law arrests 9.3.5 Arrest under legislation 9.3.6 Gv DPP (1989) 9.3.7 Walters v WH Smith & Son Ltd (1914) 9.3.8 Rv Self {1992) 9.3.9 John Lewis & Co v Tims (1952) 9.3.10 What is the meaning of 'reasonable grounds for suspecting'? 9.3.11 Detention short of arrest 9.3.12 Suspects stopped in the street 9.3.13 Stop and search 9.3.14 The Code of Practice for the exercise of statutory powers of stop and search 9.3.15 Search of arrested persons 9.3.16 Search on detention 9.3.17 Procedure on arrest 9.3.18 Police powers under s 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 9.3.19 Other aspects of s 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 9.3.20 Accountability and s 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 9.3.21 The Terrorism Act 2000 9.3.22 The use of force to effect an arrest 9.3.23 Duties after arrest 9.4 ENTRY, SEARCH AND SEIZURE 9.4.1 Entry of premises under the common law 9.4.2 Entry of premises to prevent an offence being committed 9.4.3 Entry and search of premises to make an arrest 9.4.4 Seizure of articles from searches 9.4.5 Search warrants and safeguards 375 378 381 383 383 383 385 386 391 391 392 394 395 397 397 397 399 400 401 401 402 402 404 405 406 407 408 409 409 412 413 415 415 416 416 417 417 418 419 421 421

Contents 9.5 INTERROGATION, CONFESSION AND ADMISSIBILLTY OF EVIDENCE 9.5.1 Time limits on detention without charge 9.5.2 Searches of detained persons 9.5.3 The right to have someone informed when arrested 9.5.4 The right to consult a solicitor 9.5.5 Notifying the suspect of the right to free legal advice 9.5.6 Duty solicitors 9.5.7 Delaying access to legal advice 9.5.8 R v Samuel (1988) 9.5.9 RvAlladice (1988) 9.5.10 R v Davidson (1988) 9.5.11 R v Parris (1989) 9.5.12 Interviewing before solicitor arrives 9.5.13 Answering police questions and the right to silence 9.5.14 Duties to answer 9.5.15 What can be said in court about silence in the face of police questioning 9.5.16 Right to silence in courts 9.5.17 Effective abolition of the right to silence 9.5.18 Directions to the jury on silent defendants 9.5.19 Tape-recording of interrogations 9.5.20 Confessions and the admissibility of evidence 9.5.21 Oppression 9.5.22 Unreliability 9.5.23 RvHeaton (1993) 9.5.24 The Court of Appeal's decision 9.5.25 Research findings 9.5.26 Evidence illegally or improperly obtained 9.5.27 Runciman Royal Commission proposals 9.5.28 Confession evidence 9.5.29 Corroboration of confessions 9.6 REVISED PACE CODES 9.7 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE ACT 2003 AMENDMENTS OF THE POLICE AND CRIMINAL EVIDENCE ACT 1984 CHAPTER 10: THE CRIMINAL PROCESS: (2) THE PROSECUTION 10.1 THE CROWN PROSECUTION SERVICE 10.1.1 The Code for Crown Prosecutors The discretion to prosecute Police cautioning of offenders CPS guidelines CPS independence from the police Judicial control of prosecution policy State prosecutors in the Crown Courts 10.2 10.1.2 10.1.3 10.1.4 10.1.5 10.1.6 10.1.7 BAIL 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 Appeals and re-applications Bail and the Criminal Justice Act 2003 424 425 426 427 427 428 429 431 431 432 433 433 434 434 436 437 439 441 444 448 448 449 450 450 451 454 454 456 456 457 459 459 465 471 471 475 475 476 478 480 482 483 484 485 488 491

The English Legal System 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 PLEA BARGAINING 10.3.1 R v Turner (1970) 10.3.2 Court of Appeal Practice Direction 10.3.3 RvPitman (1991) 10.3.4 Runciman Royal Commission recommendations THE JURY THE ROLE OF THE JURY 10.5.1 The jury's function in trials 10.5.2 Appeals from decisions of the jury 10.5.3 Majority verdicts 10.5.4 Discharge of jurors or the jury THE SELECTION OF THE JURY 10.6.1 Liability to serve 10.6.2 Exceptions, disqualification and excusal 10.6.3 Physical disability and jury service 10.6.4 Challenges to jury membership 10.6.5 Challenge by the defence 10.6.6 Challenge by the prosecution 10.6.7 Jury vetting 10.6.8 The racial mix of the jury 10.6.9 Racial bias in juries THE DECLINE OF THE JURY TRIAL 10.7.1 The jury trial in civil procedure 10.7.2 Juries in criminal trials 10.7.3 Jury tampering 10.7.4 Complex fraud trials JURY REFORM 10.8.1 Either way offences: the role of the jury 10.8.2 Investigation of jury behaviour 10.8.3 Conclusion CHAPTER 11: LEGAL SERVICES 11.1 INTRODUCTION 11.2 THE LEGAL PROFESSION 11.3 SOLICITORS 11.3.1 Training 11.3.2 The Law Society 11.3.3 The Institute of Legal Executives 11.4 BARRISTERS 11.4.1 Training 11.4.2 The Inns of Court 11.4.3 The General Council of the Bar 11.4.4 Education 11.4.5 Queen's Counsel 11.4.6 The barrister's chambers 11.5 PROFESSIONAL ETIQUETTE 11.5.1 Immunity from negligence claims 11.6 FUSION 494 495 495 496 498 500 503 504 507 507 508 509 509 510 512 512 512 514 514 515 517 519 520 524 525 526 527 528 531 533 535 539 539 541 542 543 543 547 548 548 549 549 549 549 550 551 551 557

Contents 11.7 THE COURTS AND LEGAL SERVICES ACT 1990 558 11.7.1 Section 17 559 11.7.2 Solicitors'rights of audience 560 11.7.3 The Access to Justice Act 1999 and rights of audience 562 11.7.4 Partnerships and transnational firms 564 11.7.5 Employed solicitors 566 11.7.6 Monopoly conveyancing rights 567 11.7.7 The Legal Services Ombudsman 568 11.8 LAWYERS AND FAIR TRADING 569 573 CHAPTER 12: THE FUNDING OF LEGAL SERVICES 575 12.1 INTRODUCTION 575 12.2 A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 576 12.3 THE NEW LEGAL AID SCHEME 580 12.3.1 Controlled and licensed work 580 12.3.2 Contracting 581 12.3.3 Quality Mark 582 12.4 THE LEGAL SERVICES COMMISSION 582 12.5 THE COMMUNITY LEGAL SERVICE 583 12.5.1 Community Legal Service contract 583 12.5.2 Financial eligibility test 584 12.5.3 The Funding Code 586 12.5.4 Legal services provided 587 12.5.5 The CLS Fund 589 12.5.6 Extension of financial conditions on an assisted party 590 12.5.7 Matching delivery with needs and priorities 590 12.5.8 Relative success of the scheme 591 12.6 THE CRIMINAL DEFENCE SERVICE 592 12.7 PUBLIC DEFENDER SERVICE 596 12.8 THE VOLUNTARY SECTOR 597 12.8.1 Law Centres 597 12.8.2 Other voluntary advice 598 12.9 CONDITIONAL FEE ARRANGEMENTS 599 12.9.1 The Access to Justice Act 1999 602 12.9.2 The advantages of conditional fee arrangements 604 12.9.3 The disadvantages of conditional fee arrangements 605 12.94 The operation of conditional fee arrangements 606 12.10 UNMET LEGAL NEED 609 12.10.1 Does it matter if such needs remain unmet? 612 615 CHAPTER 13: THE EUROPEAN CONTEXT 621 13.1 INTRODUCTION 621 13.1.1 Parliamentary sovereignty, European Community law and the courts 626 13.2 SOURCES OF EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW 629 13.2.1 Internal treaties 630 13.2.2 International treaties 630

The English Legal System 13.2.3 Secondary legislation 630 13.2.4 Judgments of the European Court of Justice 631 13.3 THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION 632 13.3.1 The Council of Ministers 632 13.3.2 The European Parliament 634 13.3.3 Powers of the European Parliament 634 13.3.4 Economic and Social Committee 636 13.3.5 The European Commission 636 13.3.6 The European Court of Justice 638 13.3.7 The Court of Auditors 642 13.4 THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 643 13.4.1 The genesis of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 650 13.5 THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION AND THE EUROPEAN UNION 653 655 Further Reading 657 Index 671