H: IRELAND VISUALS H1: Daniel O Connell, 1775 1847 O Connell was born into a well established Catholic family and trained as a lawyer and became a barrister, practising mostly in Dublin. He did not support revolution in the 1790s, believing that only political solutions to Ireland s problems would prove permanent. He was the leader of the Catholic Association in the 1820s and his victory in a parliamentary by election precipitated a crisis since Catholics were not allowed to sit as MPs. Catholic Emancipation was passed by a reluctant British government in 1829 and it earned O Connell the unofficial title of Liberator. He later turned his energies to the repeal of the Act of Union (1800) and used large, peaceful political demonstrations to show how unpopular the Union had become in Ireland. This portrait from 1836 was the work of Bernard Mulrenin (1803 68), the most celebrated portrait painter in Ireland. Source: Orphan Work H2: Irish Potato Famine This drawing captures the desperation caused by the Potato Famine of 1845 7 which all but destroyed peasant society in many parts of Ireland. For many Irish nationalists, the key event of the nineteenth century, which the British should have done much more both to prevent and then to alleviate, it was in truth one of the greatest catastrophes of nineteenth century Europe. Its causes are complex but it is common ground among history that about two thirds of the rural Irish eking 1
a living from infertile smallholdings which would support almost nothing but potato cultivation. Monoculture is always dangerous and the Famine was precipitated by the failure of the potato crop. The British government imported maize and suspended the operation of protective duties in an attempt to get food to the people but, by the time even limited quantities of grain had got to Ireland, it was too late to prevent disaster. The population of Ireland went down by 20 per cent between 1841 and 1851. The Famine and its aftermath became central to the nationalist message that Ireland must seek its independence by whatever means were necessary. Source: Corbis H3: The Ulster Covenant, 1912 The nationalist fight for independence, which would almost certainly have been won by 1914 had it not been for the outbreak of the First World War, would probably have resulted also in civil war since most of the northern province of Ulster, which was about two thirds Protestant, was fiercely loyal to the Union and prepared to fight to maintain it. The Unionists champion was the highly successful lawyer Edward Carson (1854 1935). He had become leader of the Irish Unionists at Westminster in 1910. The Covenant, depicted here, was signed by half a million Ulster citizens in protest against the Asquith s government s introduction of a third Home Rule Bill in 1912. The Covenant pledged its signatories to stand by one another in defending, for ourselves and our children, our cherished position of equal citizenship within the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule parliament in Ireland. In other words, as the implacable slogan put it, Ulster will fight and Ulster will be right. The Home Rule Bill passed the Commons at the beginning of 1913, but was rejected by the Lords. An Ulster Volunteer force was formed. Fearing civil war, Asquith introduced an amended Bill in June 1914 which would have given parts of Ulster opportunity temporarily to opt out of Home Rule arrangements. The First World War brought an uneasy and temporary halt to the political battle. 2
Source: Orphan Work 3
SIGNIFICANT STATS 1. In the first four decades of the nineteenth century, the population of Ireland increased by about 57 per cent. Its population reached a peak of about 8.3m just before the Famine. It lost about two million people to famine and emigration in the later 1840s and 1850s and population continued to decline thereafter. By 1911, at 4.4m its population was 47 per cent lower than it had been on the eve of the Famine. 2. The population of Ireland did not begin to grow again until the early 1930s 3. Throughout the period, Roman Catholics were numerically dominant in Ireland. In 1834, they formed 81% of the total population, compared with 11% for the Church of Ireland (Anglican) and 8% for the Presbyterians & other nonconformists. By 1871, the proportions had shifted little: Roman Catholic 77%. Church of Ireland 12% and Presbyterians 11%. At the last census before the First World War, the proportions were: Roman Catholic 74%, Church of Ireland 13% and Presbyterians 13%. 4. Ireland was divided historically into four provinces: Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster. Religious allegiance in the first three of these was broadly similar. In 1911, 96% of Connacht s population was Roman Catholic, 85% of Leinster s and 94% of Munster s. Ulster was different. In the forty years before the First World War, the proportion of Roman Catholics was never higher than 49% and had dipped to 44% by 1911, when 33% was Presbyterian or other nonconformist and 23% Church of Ireland. Protestant concentrations were particularly high in Belfast city (76%) and County Antrim (80%). Since political allegiance was increasingly determined along sectarian fault lines, Ulster s determination to resist an independent and united Ireland is easily explained. 4
H.i TIMELINE OF KEY EVENTS 1782: After pressure from the Volunteer movement in Ireland, a new constitution freed the Irish parliament from older legislative restrictions imposed by the British monarchy. A new two chamber Parliament the so called Grattan Parliament was established in Dublin and housed in new buildings on College Green. The Irish House of Commons had three hundred members, mostly of them representing small boroughs and smaller electorates. Henry Grattan s parliament was dominated by Protestant landowners; many of its members were, in effect, selected by members of the Irish aristocracy. 1785: The Younger Pitt s plan for a commercial union between Britain and Ireland rejected by the Dublin Parliament. 1789: Society of United Irishmen founded in Belfast to press for reform in the wake of the French Revolution. In particular, they argued that the weight of English influence in the government of this country is so great as to require a cordial union among all the people of Ireland, to maintain that balance which is essential to the preservation of our liberties and the extension of our commerce. 1793: Catholic Relief Act permits Catholics to vote in elections on the same basis as Protestants, although they could not be members of parliament or hold any significant political office. 1795: Protestant Orange Order founded, under the leadership of the Grand Orange Lodge. Its objectives were to support Protestantism in Ireland and to protect Protestants from Catholics Sectarian hostilities between Protestants and Catholics increase. A seminary for training Roman Catholic priests founded at Maynooth 1796: Wolfe Tone, leader of the United Irishmen, negotiates with the French Directory to send a fleet to Ireland as prelude to a revolution which would bring Ireland independence. A small French fleet attempted to land in Bantry Bay but deterred by storms. Government responds by passing an Insurrection Act, suspending a number of civil liberties. 1798: Lord Edward Fitzgerald launches a rebellion against British rule which is put down with heavy casualties. Fitzgerald himself was fatally wounded while trying to escape arrest. Wolfe Tone was captured and committed suicide before he could be tried for treason. 1799: Unlawful Societies Act banned the United Irishmen 1799 1800: Via Earl Cornwallis as Lord Lieutenant and Viscount Castlereagh as Chief Secretary for Ireland, Pitt s government attempts to persuade the Dublin parliament to give up its legislative role and be formally united with Britain. 1800: Act of Union passed. The Dublin parliament is abolished. One hundred MPs elected in Ireland were added to the House of Commons in Westminster. Twenty eight representative peers were elected by Irish aristocrats to sit in the House of Lords alongside four Irish Protestant bishops. Ireland s established Anglican Church was united with the Church of England. The Union also secured free trade between Britain and Ireland. 5
1801: Act of Union comes into force but Pitt s plan to grant full political emancipation for Catholics thwarted by Protestant opposition in Ireland and the refusal of George III to grant it. 1803: Irish born Col Edward Despard was convicted of high treason for trying to overthrow the government and executed. Robert Emmet leads a rebellion in Dublin, is charged with high treason and arrested. 1807: Sir Arthur Wellesley appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland (served until 1809). An Insurrection Act passed which suspended trial by jury in cases of disorder 1808: Grattan s motion for Catholic Emancipation defeated in the Commons. Grattan stated his support for the principle that the monarch should have a veto over appointments of Catholic Bishops if their loyalty to the Union was suspect. This was the beginning of the Veto controversy 1809: General Committee of the Catholics of Ireland re founded to press for Emancipation. 1812: Robert Peel appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland (served until 1818) 1813: Grattan introduced a Catholic Relief Bill in the Commons. It was withdrawn after Commons voted to continue the exclusion of Catholics from sitting in Parliament. Sectarian confrontations in Belfast and County Londonderry 1814: Peace Preservation Act passed: Lord Lieutenant empowered to appoint a chief magistrate of police and other officials charged with keeping order. 1815: Roman Catholic bishops agreed anti veto resolutions but Pius VII declared that he had no objection to a royal veto on episcopal appointments in Ireland (1816) 1816: Failure of potato crop causes famine. Associated epidemic of typhus breaks out which lasted until 1819. More than 50,000 deaths resulted. Infant mortality in Dublin about one in two. 1817: The exchequers of Britain and Ireland were brought together, consolidating the Union. Another Grattan motion for Catholic Emancipation defeated in the Commons 1818: Fever Hospitals Act passed to stimulate construction of fever and isolation hospitals 1819: Petition in favour of Catholic relief was defeated in Commons by only two votes 1820: Death of Henry Grattan. Act passed to facilitate gas for lighting in Dublin 1821: Catholic Relief Act passed in Commons but defeated in Lords by 159 votes to 120. Another failure of the potato crop. 1822: Bill to allow Roman Catholic Peers to sit in the Lords passed in the Commons but rejected in the Lords. New Insurrection Act passed which provided for a period of seven years transportation as a punishment. Poor Employment Act passed: it provided funds to 6
allow the poor to work on road building. County Constabulary Act established a police force in each Irish county 1823: Catholic Association founded by Daniel O Connell and Richard Shiel. Further financial union between Britain and Ireland when their Custom and Excise Boards are brought together. 1825: With sectarian tensions running high, Unlawful Societies Act banned the Orange Order and the Catholic Association. Catholic Relief Bill passed in Commons but, once more, defeated in the Lords 1826: Irish currency merged with British O Connell created an Order of Liberators whose members aimed to achieve full civil rights for Catholics 1828: O Connell arranged Simultaneous Meetings to press for Emancipation in more than 1500 Irish parishes House of Commons Select Committee recommended the establishment of a government body to organise elementary education in Irelans O Connell defeated Vesey Fitzgerald by a large majority in a parliamentary by election. As a Catholic, he is not allowed to take his seat in the Commons. His election precipitates a crisis over Catholic emancipation 1829: The Marquis of Anglesea, as Lord Lieutenant, urges Catholic Emancipation. The government recalls him. Act for the suppression of dangerous associations or assemblies passed Wellington s government introduces a Roman Catholic Relief Bill which passes both Houses of Parliament. It removes most of the political restrictions on Catholics, but they are still required to pay tithes to the Anglican Church of Ireland. To prevent large Catholic majorities in many Irish constituencies after Emancipation, the government introduces the Irish Parliamentary Elections Act which raised the property qualification for voting from 2 to 10, thus making the Irish electorate almost six times smaller 1830: O Connell finally takes his seat as a Catholic MP A tithe war begins in Co. Kilkenny: a mostly Catholic protest against having to pay tithes to the Church of Ireland. 1832 3: Severe cholera outbreak 1832: More popular disturbances especially against tithes 1833: Lord Lieutenant given the authority to ban public meetings which threatened public order. Church reforms include abolition of ten bishoprics of the Church of Ireland. Tithe owners granted compensation for non payment in the Tithe Arrears Act 7
1835: A new Insurrection Act passed to deal with offences endangering the public peace 1838: Principles of the English Poor Law Amendment Act (1834) extended to Ireland, with the creation of 130 poor law unions Tithe question resolved by passage of the Tithe Rentcharge Act which commuted all tithe obligations into money payments. 1840: O Connell formed the Loyal National Repeal Association, with the aim of repealing the Act of Union. Large pro repeal meetings arranged almost immediately to put pressure on the government 1842: Peel s government abolishes the death penalty for a large number of offences 1843: Numerous pro Repeal monster meetings held. The authorities respond by increasing troop numbers and the Lord Lieutenant bans a large meeting planned to be held in Clontarf. O Connell agreed to cancel the meeting but charged with conspiracy shortly afterwards. 1844: O Connell, convicted of conspiracy and served five months in prison 1845: Peel s increase in grant to support Maynooth College provokes opposition within his party and resignations from the government First reports of the crop failures which lead to a full Potato Famine. Peel ordered additional corn supplies from the USA 1846: Public Works Act passed and Importation of Corn Act virtually abolished duties on imported grain. Split within pro Repeal groups when O Connell eschews violence to achieve ends and the Young Ireland movement argues that it is necessary Famine deepens and spreads 1847: Irish Confederation founded by members of the Young Ireland movement. It demanded a full national Irish parliament with legislative and executive powers Death of O Connell A Crime and Outrage Act passed to deal with public disorder 1848: Formal commitment to physical force by the Irish Confederation Encumbered Estates Act allowed sale of mortgaged properties. This was an attempt to rescue estates which had fallen heavily into debt and to stimulate more investment in depressed Irish properties John Mitchel, editor of the new journal United Irishman, arrested, charged with sedition under a newly passed Treason Felony Act and sentenced to 14 years transportation in Australia. Attempted rebellion (#Battle of Ballingarry ) by Young Ireland movement led to arrest of its leaders William Smith O Brien and Thomas Meagher. Both were sentenced to death but had their sentences commuted to transportation. 8
1849: A new Encumbered Estates Act passed, setting up a special court with the authority to sell estates. Tenants working on estates thus sold had no protection against eviction. 1850: Presbyterian Church s General Assembly petitioned parliament to pass legislation guaranteeing rights of tenants. Tenant League founded. Irish Franchise Act passed. It produced a uniform franchise qualification in county and borough seats, on occupation of property worth at least 8 a year (in boroughs) and 12 a year (in counties). Since landownership was in few hands, the Act more than trebled the Irish electorate 1851: In response to Pius IX s re establishment of the Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales (1850), Russell s government passed Ecclesiastical Titles Act which prevented Catholics from using their titles in conflict with Anglican titles for bishops and deans. 1852: Tenant League s annual conference agreed to opposed any government which failed to take up the cause of tenant right. 1853: UK income tax applied to Ireland for the first time Irish version of the Great Exhibition the Industrial Exhibition held in Dublin and attended by Queen Victoria 1855: Public Libraries (Ireland) Act encouraged town councils to establish free libraries 1856: Return of Smith O Brien (formally pardoned in 1854) to Ireland Peace Preservation Act passed to replace the Crime and Outrage Act (1847) 1857: Sectarian riots in Belfast 1858: Formation of the Irish Republican Brotherhood an organisation dedicated to the establishment of an independent, and democratic, Ireland. Its members were bound to loyalty by the taking of secret oaths A new Act to facilitate sale and transfer of Irish land Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman, of Anglo Irish birth, and Archbishop of Westminster, made the first visit to Ireland by a cardinal since the middle of the seventeenth century 1859: Fenian Brotherhood founded in New York by John O Mahony and Michael Doheny. The Irish nationalist cause was thereafter increasingly supported by Irish emigrants to the United States 1860: Land Improvement Act facilitating the taking out of loans to fund building of dwellings intended for agricultural and other labourers 1862: Poor Relief Act allowed extension of criteria allowing the granting of relief outside workhouses 1864: The National Association of Ireland founded by John Grey and had the support of Archbishop Paul Cullen of Dublin. Its aim was to provide a non violent alternative to 9
revolutionary activity. It aimed to reform the land laws, provide free education and to achieve the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland. 1865: Further unrest leads to the arrest and imprisonment of leading Fenians Michael Davitt joins, and soon becomes dominant in, the Irish Republican Brotherhood 1866: Against background of unrest, Habeas Corpus again suspended 1867: Fenian attacks across Ireland. An attempt to free Fenian prisoners in Manchester led to the killing of a police sergeant. Three Fenians executed for the crime. Another attempted rescue of Fenian prisoners in London led to twelve civilian deaths and the execution of Michael Barrett (1868) in the last public execution to be held in the UK 1868: Further Fenian attack in Manchester 1869: Irish Church Act: disestablished the Church of Ireland and ended annual grants to the Catholic Maynooth College. The Act comes into effect in 1871 Isaac Butt founds the Irish Tenant League. 1870: Landlord and Tenant Act: it sanctioned the Ulster Custom, which gave leaving tenants compensation from new tenants for improvements and for quitting peaceably. It also attempted to make eviction of tenants holding land without a lease more difficult. Landlords found it easy to evade the terms. A new Peace Preservation Act passed, giving the authorities further powers to put down political and other forms of disorder. Sometimes known as a Coercion Act 1872: Irish Local Government Board Act passed. A new Board took over the functions of the Poor Law Commission 1873: Home Rule League founded, led by Isaac Butt. Its aim was get MPs elected on the issue of home rule for Ireland 1874: At the general election, sixty Home Rulers elected to parliament from Irish constituencies Denominational Teacher Training Colleges sanctioned 1875: Charles Stewart Parnell elected to the House of Commons at a by election A new Peace Preservation Act passed 1876: Home Rule bill defeated in Commons by 291 61 votes 1877: Obstruction of parliamentary business by some Irish Home Rule MPs began: the practice became known as filibustering Parnell elected as President of the Home Rule Confederation of Great Britain Gladstone visited Ireland for the only time in his life. He stayed for just under four weeks Secret meetings between Irish Republic Brotherhood members and Home Rule MPs led to what has been called a new departure involving co operation between physicalforce and constitutional home rulers. 10
1879: Death of Isaac Butt Parnell and Michael Davitt made a joint appeal to Irishmen overseas to support land reform Irish National Land League founded with Parnell as its President. Its aims were substantial reductions in rents paid by tenants and greatly to increase the number of tenants who could become owners of the land they farmed 1880: Parnell charged with conspiracy to prevent payment of rent but the case against him collapses (1881) A Protestant Orange Emergency Committee formed to frustrate the aims of the Land League 1881: New Peace Preservation Act passed to restrict ownership and use of firearms. The first Roman Catholic priest is arrested under the new Protection of Person and Property Act. Irish Land Act passed. It aimed to provide the 3Fs at the heart of the Land campaign: fixture of land tenure; fair rents; and freedom to sell. The Act did tenants much greater security of tenure; it also obliged landowners to bear the cost of declining rental values. A new Land Court was established and its work reduced rents for most tenants by more than 20 per cent. A Land Commission was established to lend money at favourable rates to enable tenants to buy their land. New Coercion Act passed, which caused many Irish to doubt the UK government s good faith on tenants rights. Parnell and many Land League supporters arrested. 1882: The so called Kilmainham Treaty was an informal agreement between Gladstone, as prime minister, and Parnell. Under it, Parnell was released from gaol and agreed to work to reduce disturbances. Gladstone passed the Arrears of Rent Act, under which tenants with a total annual rent of less than 30 no longer had to pay any rent arrears. The Chief Secretary for Ireland and the Permanent Under Secretary were assassinated in Phoenix Park, Dublin, by a terrorist group known as The Invincibles Parnell changes the name of the Home Rule League to the Irish Political Party 1883: Phoenix Park murderers were executed Labourers Act gave local authorities power to borrow money in order to build dwellings for agricultural labourers 1885: Fenians cause explosions in the House of Commons, Tower of London and Westminster Hall Gladstone s government fell and his son leaked the information (in the so called Hawarden Kite ) that his father was now converted to Home Rule Irish Land Purchase Act (the Ashbourne Act) passed by Salisbury s minority Conservative government. A fund totalling 5 was set aside to enable tenants to borrow the full amount of the purchase price of their land. A further 5 as added to this fund in 1888. 11
The Irish Party won 86 seats in the general election and could now exercise substantial influence on government 1886: Gladstone returned to office at the head of a Liberal government Gladstone s Government of Ireland Bill, proposing a separate Irish parliament and government, leaving Westminster responsibility restricted to defence, foreign relations and overseas trade. It was defeated in the Commons by 341 311 votes. Gladstone resigns and Conservatives return to government under Salisbury 1887: Criminal Law and Procedure Act passed which gave additional powers to the authorities to deal with disturbances and illegal demonstrations. Balfour, the recently appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, blamed for the vigour of the government s response and was known as Bloody Balfour New Land Law gave Land Courts the power to establish and fix the rents of leaseholders 1889: A new Tenants Defence Association established in Dublin Parnell s political career began to unravel when he was cited in a divorce suit by Captain W.H.O Shea 1890: Divisions within the pro nationalist camp on whether Parnell should remain leader of the Home Rule party. The Catholic clergy abandoned him and Gladstone withdrew his support 1891: An Irish Unionist Alliance formed to fight home rule Purchase of Land Act (Balfour s Act). Released more money to aid land purchase by tenants but did not compel landowners to sell Death of Parnell 1892: Irish Education Act abolished all fees in national schools and made school attendance compulsory Gladstone and the Liberals win the general election and return to government. 1893: Gladstone s Home Rule passes the House of Commons (301 267 votes) but massively defeated in the Lords (419 41 votes). 1896: Poor Law Guardians Act permits women to be elected as guardians Irish Socialist Republican Party founded by James Connolly Land Act passed, amending the Balfour Act. It removed many of the aspects of the earlier bill which had made land purchase less attractive and increased the size of the fund available. Bankrupt estates could be sold to tenants. 1898: The Irish Land League founded by William O Brien with the objective of forcing selling off pasture land in the hands of the large landowners to distribute to smaller tenant farmers. Its slogan was The Land for the People Local Government Act produced for Ireland a similar structure of locally elected representatives to that enacted in England in 1888 and 1894. County boroughs were 12
established in Cork, Dublin, Limerick and Waterford. Elsewhere, county councils were set up and, under them, borough, urban district and rural district councils. Irish nationalists won most of the seats, especially in the south and west of Ireland 1899: Michael Davitt withdrew from the House of Commons in protest against Britain s declaration of war against the Boers 1900: The Irish party was reunited under the leadership of John Redmond. United Irish League recognized as the official organisation of the Irish party 1903: Land Act (Wyndham s Act) passed. It finally ended landlord control over their tenants. Treasury subsidies made available to transfer whole estates from landlord to tenant. By 1914, three quarters of tenants had bought out their landlords and about 9 million acres had been transferred. National Council formed to protest against the visit of Edward VII to Ireland which went ahead. Led by Arthur Griffith. 1904: Unionist conference in Belfast passed resolutions opposing any devolution of power in Ireland 1905: Ulster Unionist Council formed National Council agreed to organise on national basis. Griffith presented his Hungarian Policy which involved Irish MPs withdrawing from Parliament. This was quickly renamed Sinn Fein (Gaelic for We ourselves ) Liberal government formed and then (1906) won a large majority in the UK parliament: 83 Irish nationalists returned, including one representing an English constituency 1907: Liberals introduced an Irish Councils Bill to transfer many local powers to a central authority in Dublin, thus effecting a degree of devolution. Opposed by Unionists and also by many nationalists, since it fell short of full home rule. The United Irish League was particularly scathing and the Liberals withdrew the bill. Evicted Tenants Act gave Estates Commissioners powers compulsorily to purchase land for the use of evicted tenants. 1908: Irish Universities Act replaced the Royal University with the National University of Ireland and Queen s University, Belfast Housing of the Working Classes Act gave local authorities greater powers to build houses 1909: Asquith, as prime minister, stated that Liberal policy at the forthcoming general election would include home rule for Ireland 1910: Edward Carson elected as leader of the Unionist party Irish MPs not invited to participate in the Constitutional Conference about the powers of the House of Lords 1911: Local Authorities Act enabled women in Ireland to be elected as members of county and county borough councils 13
1912: In debate on the Liberal Home Rule bill, a proposal to exclude the four counties of Ulster from the bill was defeated Rise in sectarian hostility, including Protestant workers expulsion of Catholics from Belfast shipyards. Ulster Solemn League and Covenant pledged whatever resistance may be necessary to the implementation of Home Rule. 1913: Carson s amendment to Home Rule bill to exclude Ulster defeated in Commons Home Rule bill passed Commons (367 257 votes) but defeated in the Lords (326 59 votes) (Jan). Formation of the Ulster Volunteer Force Represented Home Rule bill (July) passed Commons (352 243 votes but defeated in the Lords (302 64) Considerable labour unrest, some of which had sectarian overtones Carson announced formation of a provisional Ulster government if Home Rule including Ulster were to be implemented 1914: Asquith introduced an amended Home Rule bill, which would permit counties in Ulster to vote on whether they wished to be excluded from Home Rule on a temporary basis. The Lords voted to allow this opt out to be permanent After war broke out (Aug), Redmond announced his support for the UK war effort and recommended that both Irish and Ulster Volunteers should be employed in defence of Ireland against Germany and its allies. Government of Ireland Act passed to establish self government for Ireland but within the United Kingdom. This would have provided a form of extensive devolved government A Suspending Act passed (Sept) to delay implementation of the Government of Ireland Act either for one year or for the duration of the World War. James Connolly became President of the Irish Neutrality League, which split the nationalists into those who supported, and those who opposed, Irish involvement in the war. For further details see (eds.) N.C.Fleming & A.O Day, The Longman Handbook of Modern Irish History since 1800 (Pearson, Harlow, 2005) 14