1 Housing Correlates of Under-Five 1 Mortality in Urban Ethiopia: A Paper Presented at the XXVII IUSSP International Conference, Busan, Korea, 26-31 August 2013 By: Hadgu Bariagaber (Ph.D/Associate Professor), University of Botswana, Faculty of social Sciences, Department of Population Studies, P/Bag UB 00705, Block 240, Office 241 : e-mail: hadgub84@gmail.com Tel:(267) 355-2713, Mobile: 771-63-693 Abstract: Little studies have been done to investigate the housing determinants of under-five mortality, despite the fact that Ethiopia has collected abundant empirical housing data from the previous national population and housing censuses (1984,1994 and 2007) and DHS studies (2000, 2005 and 2011 surveys).this is, therefore, to explore the extent of impacts of urban housing variables( housing situations and facilities) on under-five mortality rates in consonance with MDG 2 objectives and prepare some recommendations for awareness of the urban health planners of the country in line with the perspectives of 2015 worldwide MDG. The SPSS file of the 2005 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey covered a sample of about 4420 households/housing units of urban Ethiopia, The number of children ever born and living were collected based on the questionnaire birth histories of the women in the age group 15-49. The number of under-five deaths is compiled by the author by subtracting the number of children living from the everborn children and established the proportion dead by dividing deaths by children everborn. The rationale and motivation of the Author is, therefore, to know how housing components determine the quality of urban life through the health status of under-five children. The analytical techniques of the study are proposed to included simple descriptive frequency distributions of univariate and bivariate cross tabulations as well as multivariate data analysis of the proportional variations of childhood mortality patterns with respect to housing situations ( types of wall, roofing, floor, ceiling etc) and housing facilities ( toilet, water, bathing etc) as well as household durables, namely communication media such as radio, telephone and TV. Key Words: urbanization, primate city, urbanstructure/services, correlates, under-five mortality, housing situation, housing facilities, household durables, frequency descriptive statistics (univariate and bivariate) and proportions of multivariate data analysis. 1 Under-five: It is a summation consisting of Neonatal,(NN), Post-neonatal (PNN), Infant and child mortality lrvel. 2 MDG: Goals 4 and 7( child mortality and environmental/urbanization).
2 I. Introduction 1.1 Demographic Background of Ethiopia: Ethiopia has so far undertaken three modern National Population and Housing Censuses. The first census ever taken was in 1984, followed by 1994 and 2007, respectively. In terms population size, the country stands second to Nigeria in the African continent. Summary of some salient demographic features of the country are presented in Table 1.1.1 Table-1.1.1:Summary of Basic Demographic Indicators of Ethiopia: Variables Basic demographic indicators corresponding to Census Dates 1984 1994 2007 Population (million) 42.6 53.5 73.8 Level of urbanization (%) 11.4 13.7 16.1 Pop Growth Rate(%) 3.1 2.9 2.6 Total Fertility Rate (TFR) 6.5 6.0 5.5 Sex Ratio at Birth 104.0 103.0 103.0 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Child mortality parameters 2000 2005 2011 Infant Mortality Rate 97 77 59 Under-Five Mortality 166 123 88 Childhood Mortality 77 50 31 Life Expectancy: Male Female 51.1 53.4 50.9 53.5 56.3 58.5 Source: (1) Compiled from 1984, 1994 and 2007 Population and Housing Census Reports (2) Compiled from the 2000,2005 and 2011 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Surveys (EDHS) With the future prospective decline in mortality, particularly infant and childhood mortality levels, patterns and trends (refer to Table 1.1.1), accompanied by probably persistent still high fertility, the high population growth rate of Ethiopia would still remain to be worrisome to planners of all development sectors and politicians of the country in the years to come. For example, taking an average growth rate of 2.6 percent, the population is estimated to reach about 86.3 million in 2013. Furthermore, if we assume a growth rate of 2.6% to persist for the years to come, the population of the country could double itself in a matter of about every 27 years. This means that the population of Ethiopia would be about 147.6 million by the year 2031, calling for all environmental, social and economic developmental efforts and relevant policy actions to decrease the population growth and accelerate the socio-economic conditions in order at least keep pace with the rapid population growth.
3 1.2 Preview of Urbanization and its problems in Sub-Saharan Africa with Reference to Ethiopia: Rural/urban distinction in many sub-saharan African Countries has always been ambiguous. The definition and delineation of urban from rural environment vary from country to country and even from census to census of the same country. In the majority of sub-saharan countries, a minimum concentration of non-agricultural population with 2000 and over inhabitants has generally been accepted as an urban locality. Exceptions are Nigeria (with 20,000 and over), Ghana (with 5000 and over), Gabon and Tunisia (with 1000 and over), Egypt (all administrative governorate centres regardless of population size) and South Africa (with 500 and over non-agricultural settlements). At International level, there are five main definitional and conceptual criteria, as follows: Proper urban population, with 20,000 and over inhabitants; Metropolis, with 50,000 and over ; City population, with 100,000 and over ; Big city population, with 500,000 and over; and Megalopolis, with 10 million and over population. The rationale of the minimum definition of 20,000 and over population is that in such agglomeration of population, it is believed that there could be minimum agricultural activities, more heterogeneous in ethnic composition, cultural diversity and multi-urban functional variations such as demographic structure, social, economic, and political organizations, lifestyles, values, perceptions and expectations, which all have been different from rural hinterlands. Even taking the minimum of 2000 and over, the size of urban population out of the national population in each Sub-Saharan African country has been extremely low, ranging from as low as 10-22 percent for East and 25-33 percent for Middle Africa, with Ethiopia having had recorded ranging from about 9 percent in 1970 s to about 16 percent as of the 2007 population and housing census results out of the Total National Population(UN 1994, UNECA 1995, Ethiopia 1994 and 2007). Contrary to the low level of urbanization, particularly for Ethiopia, the urban population growth rate has been the highest in the world, ranging from 4.7 percent for Southern Africa to 5.6 percent for Eastern Sub-Region, giving about 5.3 percent for Sub-Saharan Africa, about 5 percent and 4 percent for Ethiopia urban sector and Addis Abeba city annual growth rate, respectively (UNECA 1995; Ethiopia 1984/1994//2007 population and housing censuses). Besides being a low level of urbanization, the concentration of urbanization in one or two urban area(s) in the African Continent has been worrisome. As observed by Sokona (1985) and Sovani,N.V.(1964), the concentration of the urban population in a capital city, like Dakar in
4 Senegal, Bamako in Mali, Nairobi in Kenya etc., has been common characteristics in many other Sub-Saharan African countries. As rightly stated by Hamden (1964), these concentration and centralization of power and resources in a few urban settlements have been true since the colonial and postcolonial era of the continent of Africa where the political capitals were emerged by either being historical native significance or due to the colonial and postcolonial administrative and economic phenomena, growing rapidly with all concomitant urbanization problems, including housing situations and facilities. Accordingly, UN(1976;,1985,1986,1988) noted that adequate shelter, potable water and decent sanitary facilities have been deplorably lacking and unhealthy overcrowding of accommodation were apparently large cities emerged in many developing countries. For example, a study by the UN in the late 1970 s showed that 50 percent of households in Calcutta, 33 percent in Mexico city, 60 percent in Accra (Ghana) and about 50 percent in Monrovia (Liberia) of the urban population were living in slum/squatter settlements and 35 percent of all urban localities in Sub-Saharan Africa were living in overcrowded single room houses (UN,!974, 1975). The case of Ethiopia has not been an exception where Addis Abeba has already become a primate city, having similar urban primacy characteristics of many developing countries. It is the National Capital, has become the leading primate city with all the privileges of concentration of national investments, allocation of skilled human resources and being given the national and international political attention, but still been experiencing all urban problems, including housing (Ethiopian urbanization issues by different Authors, 1980-2000). 1.3 Source of Data: In order to keep abreast with timely data requirements for short and long term development planning, the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) of Ethiopia has been conducting series of Demographic Sample Surveys in order to fill the intercensal gaps in population composition and population dynamics. Among the demographic sample surveys include conducting series of demographic and health surveys (DHS) with special reference to the incidence and prevalence of HIV/AIDS pandemic and other opportunistic diseases such as Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI s),tb s, and other non-hiv infectious diseases (EDHS: 2000,2005 and 2011). However, the source of data of the study is the SPSS Data File of the 2005EDHS. The output of this survey is found to be unique from other EDHS in that it covered about 14,000 women in the productive and reproductive age segment of 15-49, for all classifications of urban setting in the country with corresponding data on children everborn and surviving for each woman in the age group 15-49. From the retrospective data of children evereborn (CEB) and surviving, the author was able to construct the corresponding number of children dead, forming proportion of dead by dividing number of children dead by corresponding CEB s, covering 4420 households/housing units (housing situation/structure: types of wall, floor, roof etc), housing facilities ( water, toilet, kitchen etc) and housing communication (durables such as radio, telephone and TV).
5 1.4 Problem Statement: There had been persistent high mortality condition in Sub-Saharan Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular and this trend could be conjectured to continue for some decades before coming down to acceptable levels. The main reasons could be noted to be largely due to the widespread poverty conditions and low level of health services in urban/rural Sub-Saharan Africa. In particular, it had been apparent that persistently high infant mortality induces high fertility level, for women tend to increase their fertility performance in order to compensate the loss of high infant mortality, which is termed as replacement effects. The reciprocal relationship between high infant mortality and high fertility levels has been such that fertility tends to be superior to the level of infant mortality and follows by relatively high survivors which results again having a youthful population, leading to high dependency ratio (burden) on the productive. Eventually, the increase in the reproductive segments of the population as well as producing high growth potentials, would subsequently result in significant detrimental effects on developmental endeavours, aggravating poverty with concomitant effect on health service provisions. 1.5 The Setting up of the Study: 1.5.1 Rationale of the Study: Little analysis has been done on the housing determinants of infant and childhood mortality, despite the fact that Ethiopia has collected abundant empirical housing data from the previous national population and housing censuses (1984,1994 and 2007) and EDHS studies (2000, 2005 and 2011 surveys). 1.5.2 Objective of the Study: The focus of this paper is unique in the sense that examination of the variations of childhood mortality are going to be explored in the urban structure of Ethiopia with respect to housing characteristics, namely, housing situation, facilities and household durables using the SPSS Data files of 2005 EDHS, which covered, among other data of interest, a sample of about 4400 households/ housing units. 1.5.3 Organization of the Study: The study is organized under three main analytical levels, namely, frequency distribution of housing situation and housing facilities along their respective categorical variables and examination of the impact of housing categorical variables on under-five child mortality. 1.5.4 The Study Areas: With respect to area coverage, the study considers all urban areas of Ethiopia, being designed and classified in the 2005EDHS questionnaire by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia, as follows: Addis Abeba, the capital city of the country, with over 4 million population; Large cities with population size of 100,000 and above;
6 Medium cities with population size between 50,000 to 100,000. Small Town with population size between2000 to 49,999. Sub city which meets the administrative function or sub-division of an urban locality/ Kebele administration or Urban district/ Wereda with population size between 1000 to 1999. 1.6. Methodological Issues: 1.6.1 General Conceptual Framework: Housing conditions are covariates of the level of living conditions which influence the status of mortality in general and infant and childhood mortality in particular. A simplified web is hereby presented in Figure-1, demonstrating the complex reciprocal interaction among Socio-economic, housing, demographic variables and general mortality conditions. In-built in the general mortality box, we conceptualize the levels and patterns of infant and childhood mortality in relation to the housing variables. Fig-1: Conceptual framework manifesting the antecedent and proximate determinant of Infant and Childhood mortality Housing Variables :Proximate Variables Socio-economic variables Childhood Mortality Demographic Variables The housing conditions, therefore, can reflect the levels of the living conditions and also indirectly influence the status of mortality in general and infant and childhood mortality in particular. 1.6.2)Analytical Methods of the Study: The analytical methods would be done at three stages: (i) univariate; (ii) bivariate and (iii) multivariate data analysis. Simple descriptive and proportionality of variation among the categories of each housing characteristic (for example, type of floor, toilet facility etc.) with respect to relative infant and childhood mortality level be applied where the univariate and bivariate analysis would deal with the types, levels and characteristics of urban services whereas the latter would focus on the housing determinants of infant and childhood mortality levels and patterns. From the analysis, we would be able to identify the most critical categorical variables of the housing situations, housing facilities and household service durables which would likely appear influence childhood mortality.
7 II. Housing Situation and Housing Facilities in Urban Ethiopia: 2.1 General Housing Situation and Facility of Addis Abeba: As presented in Table-2.1.1, despite the fact that Addis Abeba has been receiving the lion s share of the national human and material resources, the city has been characterized by a number unhealthy conditions,: Table-2.1.1:Summary indicators of housing facilities and situations, Addis Abeba Housing Facility: Kitchen facility: Traditional modern Rooms used as kitchen No kitchen Water supply: Private tap No bathing Using well/river/spring Toilet facility: Flush toilet: Dry pits No toilets Percent out of total 67.8 6.0 46.9 26.2 27-29 85.8 19-22 12.0 73-77 24-30 Housing situation: Wood/mud /thatched walls Floor of earth/mud Cooking: fire wood/ dung using kerosene for lighting Renting households Overcrowding Indicators: 3+ persons per room Doubled up households Source: Compiled from different data sources: (i) 1990 HFF; 1994 Population and Housing Census (ii) 1998 and 2000 EDHS Percent out of total 84.4 53-56 53.4 10.3 60.6 41.7 19.3 In order to upgrade and renew the existing situation of the city to acceptable standard, it calls for huge human and material resources. On top of that, the city s population has been growing rapidly due to rural and other urban migration which would compound the city s problems. 2.2 Frequency Distribution of Housing Structure of Urban Ethiopia: The housing situations of urban Ethiopia, expressed in terms of the quality of types of wall, floor and roofing, are summarized in Tables 2.2.1, -2.2.2 and 2.2.3, respectively As shown in Table-2,2,1, more than 60 percent of the walls of the houses in urban Ethiopia are made of bamboo trees or woods with mud. With respect to types of flooring, Table 2.2,2 manifests that exhibits that about 32 percent and 24 percent are made of Vinyl (plastic tiles) and either cements or bricks. Regarding roofing materials, more than 90 percent of the houses are covered by corrugated iron sheets.
8 Table-2.2.1: Summary of Housing situations by Urban Classifications: Types of Wall Classification of urban areas Housing Structure Capital, Medium Small large city city Town Modern 22.8 46.2 15.6 30.2 Bamboo /wood/ mud 69.8 45.3 74.6 61.5 Others 7.4 8.5 9.8 8.3 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1663) 100.0(948) 4423 Row total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 Column Total (%) Types of Floor Types of Roof Vinyl/ cement bricks 67.9 66.2 26.3 58.4 Carpet/earth/dung 27.3 30.3 71.0 37.7 Others 4.8 3.5 2.7 3.9 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1663) 100.0(948) 4423 Row total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 Corrugated iron sheets 94.3 92.5 75.7 88.8 Thatch / leaf/reed/ 0.4 2.5 15.9 5.1 Others 5.3 4.9 8.4 6.1 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1660) 100.0(948) 4420 Row total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 2.3 Frequency Distribution of Housing Facilities: The percentage distributions of availability of water, toilets, cooking facilities and types of lightning are presented in Tables 2.3.1 to 2.3.5. From these Tables, we can observe that urban Ethiopia has generally been facilitated by poor water supply, unhealthy toilet facility, environmentally unacceptable cooking materials and very traditional household lightnings.
9 Table-2.3.1 Summary of frequency distribution of Housing Facilities Types of Water Supply Type of toilet facility Toilet facilities shared Cooking Fuel Has electrici ty Classification of urban areas Housing facilities Capital, large city Medium city Small Town Column Total % Pipe in dwelling /compound 71.0 49.0 25.3 51.1 Pipe outside compound 24.0 43.6 42.8 36.9 Unprotected well / spring 5.0 7.4 31.9 12.0 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1663) 100.0(948) 4423 Row Total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 Pit latrine with open pit 69.3 75.0 69.3 71.5 Flush to sewer / septic tank 19.7 8.5 6.5 12.8 Others ( bucket, bush etc) 11.0 3.5 24.2 15.7 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1663) 100.0(948) 4423 Row total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 No 34.1 42.9 53.3 43.0 Yes 60.7 53.3 43.5 57.5 Not de jure 5.1 3.8 3.2 4.5 Total 100.0 (1755) 100.0(1531) 100.0(758) 100.0(4044) Row total (%) 43.4 37.9 18.7 100.0 Kerosene 69.0 29.9 4.2 40.5 Firewood/straw/Charcoal 21.2 60.7 92.1 51.3 Other (elect+ natural gas..) 9.8 9.4 3.7 8.2 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1663) 100.0(944) 4419 Row Total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 No 2.6 1.9 31.8 8.7 Yes 92.4 94.6 65.7 87.2 Other 5.0 3.5 2.5 4.1 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1663) 100.0(948) 100.0(4423) Row Total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 3.4 Communication facilities-durables: The types of household communication durables are summarized in Table 3.4.1. While about 83 percent of the total urban household own radios, the case of small urban localities has been still low where about 68 percent of the household own radios.
10 Regarding the availability of household TV, although about 51 percent of the total own TV, it is only about 17 percent of the households in small towns appear to have access to national TV media. The households access to Telephone ownership is also deplorably low where about only 41 percent of urban Ethiopia could own individual household telephone apparatus. Table-3.4.1: Availability of Radio, Telephone and TV in the Households :: Classification of urban areas Household Durables Capital, large Medium Small Column city city Town Total (%) No 6.5 12.1 29.7 13.6 Yes 88.5 84.4 67.7 82.5 Has Radio Not de jure 5.0 3.5 2.5 3.9 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1663) 100.0(948) 4423 Row Total %) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 Has Television Has Telephone No 28.0 43.3 80.2 44.9 Yes 67.0 53.2 17.3 51.2 Not de jure 5.0 3.5 2.5 3.9 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1663) 100.0(948) 4423 Row total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 No 38.1 58.9 83.0 55.5 Yes 57.0 37.7 14.5 40.6 Not de jure nt 5.0 3.5 2.5 3.9 Total 100.0(1812) 100.0(1660) 100.0(948) 4420 Row total (%) 41.0 37.6 21.4 100.0 III. Impact of Housing Variables on Under-Five Mortality Mortality is one of the components of the demographic dynamics. It plays important role in the determination of population growth and demographic transition concept 3, for it is the outcome of the interplay among various biological, environmental, economic and socio-cultural factors. This section, therefore, deals with the influence of housing conditions on the mortality levels of under-five children of urban Ethiopia. From the SPSS data file of 2005 EDHS, the proportions of children dead are computed from the difference between children everborn and children living, controlled for urban areas, housing conditions and establish proportion of dead against the categorical variables of housing situation, facilities and household durables under sections- 3.1, 3.2 and 3.4, respectively. The details are shown in tabular forms in the subsequent different tables. 3 The demographic Transition Theory :
Proportion dead 11 3.1 Impact of Housing Structure on Under-Five Mortality Level: This sub-section examines the correlates of the housing situation, comprising mainly the material of construction of walls, floor and roofing of under-five childhood mortality of urban Ethiopia. The results are summarized in the following Tables and with their respective graphical representations. Table-3.1.1: construction material of floors Types of Floor CEB Total Alive Deaths (absolute) Proportion dead Earth / sand 1977 1684 293 0.1482 Animal Dung 494 409 85 0.1721 Wood planks/reed 90 85 7 0.0778 polished wood 204 193 11 0.0539 Vinyl 1998 1773 225 0.1126 Ceramic tiles 124 118 6 0.0484 Cement / bricks 1457 1324 133 0.0913 Carpet 252 225 27 0.1071 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6754 5948 808 0.1196 0.2000 0.1800 0.1600 0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 Proportion Dead By Type Of Floor 0.1721 0.1482 0.1126 0.0913 0.1071 0.0778 0.0539 0.0484 0.1329 Type of floor
Proportion dead 12 Table-3.1.2 construction material of wall: Wall Material CEB Alive Dead (absolute) Proportion dead Unconventional walls 433 293 140 0.3233 Bamboo / wood with mud 4404 3853 551 0.1251 Stone with mud 630 552 78 0.1238 Cement 177 159 18 0.1017 Stone with lime / cement 435 395 40 0.0920 Cement blocks 622 568 54 0.0868 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6859 5957 902 0.1315 0.3500 0.3000 0.2500 0.2000 0.1500 0.1000 0.0500 0.0000 0.3233 Proportion Dead By Type Of Wall 0.1251 0.1238 0.1017 0.0920 0.0868 0.1329 Type of wall
Proportion Dead 13 Table-3.1.3 construction material of roofing Roofing material CEB Alive Dead (absolute) Proportion dead Unconventional roofing 184 149 35 0.1902 Thatch / leaf / reed 447 337 110 0.2461 Wood planks 79 69 10 0.1266 Corrugated iron 5915 5237 678 0.1146 Cement / concrete 21 21 0 0.0000 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6804 5950 854 0.1255 0.3000 0.2500 0.2000 0.1902 Proportion Dead By Type Of Roof 0.2461 0.1500 0.1266 0.1146 0.1329 0.1000 0.0500 0.0000 0.0000 Type of Roof 3.2. Impact of Housing Facilities on Under-Five Mortality: The housing facilities under this sub-section include water supply, toilets, Cooking Fuel and power.
Proportion Dead 14 Table-3.2.1 water supply Source of drinking water CEB Alive Dead Proportion (absolute) dead Piped in dwelling 145 130 15 0.1034 Piped into compound 2712 2485 227 0.0837 Piped outside compound 2878 2457 421 0.1463 Unprotected well/ spring 438 372 66 0.1507 Protected well / spring 428 369 59 0.1379 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6759 5950 809 0.1197 0.1600 0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 Proportion Dead By Water Supply Facility 0.1463 0.1507 0.1379 0.1329 0.1034 0.0837 Water Supply
Proportion Dead 15 Table-3.2.1 Toilet Facility Type of toilet facility CEB Alive Dead (absolute) proportion dead Flush to sewer / septic tank 166 160 6 0.0361 Flush to pit latrine 175 157 18 0.1029 Ventilated improved pit latrine 314 275 39 0.1242 Pit latrine with slab 2840 2549 291 0.1025 Pit latrine without slab / open pit 1971 1719 252 0.1279 Composting toilet 228 196 32 0.1404 Bucket toilet 36 28 8 0.2222 No facility / bush / field 871 729 142 0.1630 Not de jure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6759 5950 809 0.1197 0.2500 Proportion Dead By Toilet Facility 0.2222 0.2000 0.1500 0.1000 0.1029 0.1242 0.1025 0.1279 0.1404 0.1630 0.1329 0.0500 0.0361 0.0000 Type of Toilet Facilty
Proportion Dead 16 Table- 3.2.2 Toilet sharing facility Toilet facility shared CEB Alive dead (absolute) proportion dead No 2682 2408 274 0.1022 Yes 3052 2679 373 0.1222 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 5892 5224 668 0.1134 0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 Proportion Dead y Toilet Facility Sharing 0.1022 0.1222 0.1329 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 No Yes Not dejure resident Shared Toilet Table 3.2.3 Cooking Fuel Type of cooking fuel CEB Alive Dead (absolute) proportion dead Electricity 82 77 5 0.0610 LPG, natural gas 84 81 3 0.0357 Kerosene 2083 1891 192 0.0922 Charcoal 1191 1065 126 0.1058 Firewood, straw 3102 2651 451 0.1454 Animal Dung 57 47 10 0.1754 Not dejure member 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6757 5949 808 0.1196
Proportion Dead 17 0.2000 0.1800 0.1600 0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 Proportion Dead By Type Of Cooking Fuel 0.1754 0.1454 0.1058 0.0922 0.0610 0.0357 0.1329 Cooking Fuel Table- 3.2.4 Type of lighting Has electricity CEB Alive Dead (absolute) Proportion dead No 1058 878 180 0.1701 Yes 5543 4935 608 0.1097 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6759 5950 809 0.1197
Proportion Dead 18 0.1800 0.1600 0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 Proportion Dead By Availability of Electric Lighting 0.1701 0.1329 0.1097 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 No Yes Not dejure resident Availability of Electricity 3.3 Impact of Housing Durables on Under-Five Mortality: Table-3.3.1 Under-five mortality variations with respect to radio availability in a household: Has Radio CEB Alive Dead (absolute) Proportion dead No 1382 1144 238 0.1722 Yes 5219 4669 550 0.1054 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6759 5950 809 0.1197
Proportion Dead 19 Proportion Dead By Radio Availability 0.2000 0.1722 0.1500 0.1000 0.0500 0.1054 0.1329 0.0000 No Yes Not dejure resident Radio Availability Table-3.3.2 Under-five mortality variations with respect to telephone availability in a household: Has telephone CEB Alive Dead (absolute) Proportion dead No 4321 3708 613 0.1419 Yes 2274 2100 174 0.0765 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6753 5945 808 0.1197
Proportion Dead 20 0.1600 0.1400 0.1200 Proportion Dead By Telephone Availability 0.1419 0.1329 0.1000 0.0800 0.0765 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 No Yes Not dejure resident Telephone Availabity Table-3.3.3 Under-five mortality variations with respect to TV availability in a household: Dead Proportion Has TV CEB Alive (absolute) dead No 3697 3143 554 0.1499 Yes 2904 2670 234 0.0806 Not dejure resident 158 137 21 0.1329 Total 6759 5950 809 0.1197
Proportion Dead 21 0.1600 0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 Proportion Dead By Television Availability 0.1499 0.0806 0.1329 0.0000 No Yes Not dejure resident Television Availability IV Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations: 4.1 Summary and Conclusion of the frequency distribution Tables: The frequency distribution Tables of the housing structure, facilities and household durables can be summarized as follows: most of the materials of floor are made of Carpet/earth/dung (specially with small towns) which are full of dusts, detrimental to child health; material construction of walls are mostly bamboos/woods/mud in all urban areas; materials for roofing are mostly corrugated iron sheets, though some thatched /leave/reed roofs in small towns water supply facilities are mostly outside compound, being shared among households but unprotected well/spring, specially in small towns; toilets are mostly shared pit latrine, use of buckets and bush: cooking facilities are kerosene, firewood straw, charcoal power is available with significant coverage in big and medium cities but about only one-third of households in small towns have electric power;. durables: availability of radio is significantly high in large, but having low proportions in telephone and TV in medium and very low in small towns. In general, from the frequency distribution tables of the housing situation, facilities, and household communication durables, we can conclude as follows:
22 Prevalence of deplorable housing shortages, poor environmental sanitation, unhealthy overcrowding in terms of person/room ratios; Congestion with high rate of household tenancy and unacceptable waste disposal practices, unhealthy housing conditions with doubled up households, sharing the same facilities; inadequate and qualitatively inefficient water supply system; sub-standard unacceptable toilet facilities; and serious lack of modern kitchen facilities associated with poor cooking fuel facilities. 4.2 Summary of the analysis of housing correlation of proportion of infant and childhood mortality levels: Among the categorical variables of the housing structures, facilities and household durables, which manifested highest proportions of the prevalence of proportion of under-five mortality levels, are summarized in the following Table: Housing Characteristics Housing Structure: Floor: animal dung--------------------------- Wall: unconventional material------------ l Roofing: thatched leave/reed-------------- Housing Facilities: Water: Unprotected well/spring-------------- Toilet: shared pit latrine, use of bucket/ bush Lightning: no electric power: --------------- Cooking: kerosene, fire wood/straw, charcoal Household Durables: No household radio---------------------------- No household telephone---------------------- No household TV----------------------------- Highest proportion Dead 0.1721 0.3233 0.2461 0.1507 0.2222 0.17o1 0.1754 0.1722 0.1419 0.1499 4.3 Recommendation: It is believed that this study provides basic inputs for urban planners and policy makers to be engaged in ameliorating the current urban housing conditions,which could contribute to the evaluation of the attainment for the 2015 MDG4 expected target and also for future improvements of urban quality of life. The remaining task is further to undertake analysis by cross-tabulating among the housing characteristics, being controlled for proportion of under-five mortality levels. For example, types of floor cross-tabulating by types of wall, controlled for proportion dead, could help focus in upgrading existing housing conditions and also for future urban and housing planning, monitoring and evaluation programmes.
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