Foreign and Defense Policy

CHAPTER 15 Foreign and Defense Policy CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Changing Parameters of Foreign and Defense Policies A. Changing Issues II. B. New Actors Vulnerability in Historical Perspective A. 1789 1823: The Foundations of American Foreign Policy B. 1823 1914: Isolationism, Unilateralism, and Expansionism C. 1914 1960: America Emerges as World Leader D. 1960s 1980s: Containment in a Changing World E. 1990s: Rethinking Foreign and Defense Policies F. 2000s: Clashing Civilizations and the Response to September 11 III. Making Foreign and Defense Policy A. The President and the White House B. The Bureaucracies C. The Congressional Role in Policymaking D. The Mass Media and Attentive Publics E. The Role of Public Opinion IV. Wielding Power A. Diplomatic Tools V. Military and Defense Strategies A. Guns or Butter? B. Alternative Military Strategies VI. Conclusion: The Reshaping of Foreign and Defense Policy CHAPTER SUMMARY As the events of September 11, 2001, made abundantly clear, the end of the Cold War did not suddenly reduce the importance of foreign and defense policymaking. In fact, in the current world of unpredictable challenges and dangers, our national government increasingly treats international problems as its most important task. As economic interdependency and common culture appear to shrink our globe, relations between nations become a greater part of our political life and a more significant factor in our well-being. The collapse of Soviet world power reduced one challenge, but it raised troublesome new challenges for our foreign policymakers to adjust to in an even more complex and complicated new world order. Defense is a crucial and controversial part of national policy since we must live with nuclear weapons, international terrorism, global markets, and global consequences for national decisions. Chapter 15 concludes your two-part examination of national policymaking and your study of American government with a look at these vital aspects of our political system. Notice that the authors begin by using controversy over illegal immigrants as an example of how longstanding policy debates can be quickly transformed by changes in world affairs. To understand these transformations, the chapter describes the historical development of America s involvement with the world. In the course of our nation s history, we have evolved from policies of isolationism and

58 Chapter 15: Foreign and Defense Policy unilateralism to policies that foster an extensive involvement in international affairs. Our concerns have expanded from military defense to economic security. In the second part of this chapter, the focus is on the players in the policymaking process: the president and the bureaucracy; Congress; the media; and finally, the role of public opinion. Who decides our foreign policy? How are those decisions made? Does public opinion matter? Diplomacy is the business of dealing with other nations. The power to engage in diplomacy has many sources and options. These options range from the friendly methods of formal recognition, aid, and treaty agreements to the not-so-friendly use of covert activities to spy on or cause trouble for other nations. United States military policies are controversial, and in the last pages of this chapter you will deal with two major issues in the debate: How much money should be spent on defense, and how should defense money be spent? Here, you will see the arguments for more or less defense spending in proportion to the concerns of domestic policy, as well as the arguments for more or less spending for nuclear as opposed to nonnuclear weapons. Disputes over American foreign and defense policy are often influenced by an old and powerful myth about our nation s vulnerability. Today, this myth is undergoing change as old threats subside and new threats emerge. The myth is no less influential, however, as the United States debates its security and well-being in the world of the twenty-first century. You will find it valuable to complete your introduction to American government with this study of an excellent example of the democratic process at work. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After carefully reading and studying the chapter, you should be able to: 1. Describe the myth of vulnerability and explain its influence on foreign and defense policymaking. 2. Explain the changes in American foreign policy as the nation rose to world leadership. 3. Describe U.S. policy responses to the challenge of the Soviet Union during the Cold War era. 4. Explain the increasing importance of economic security as a goal of U.S. foreign policy. 5. Discuss the importance of the president and his advisers in the foreign and defense policymaking process. 6. Describe the powers of Congress in foreign affairs and discuss the balance of presidentialcongressional power in that arena. 7. Identify the related role of the media and the public in the making of foreign and defense policy. 8. Identify and demonstrate the sources of power in international diplomacy. 9. Describe the modern controversy over defense spending and distinguish the arguments presented in that debate. 10. Identify and differentiate the major defense strategies of the United States in the nuclear age. 11. Describe how the end of the Cold War has altered American foreign and defense policy goals. 12. Describe how the terrorist attacks on the United States in the first part of the twenty-first century transformed American foreign policy. 13. Describe the issues and choices facing those who make U.S. defense policy.

Chapter 15: Foreign and Defense Policy 59 READING TABLES AND GRAPHS 1. What occurred during the upward bulges in Figure 15.3? 2. What does Figure 15.2 tell about defense spending as a percentage of government expenditures? 3. How much was spent on defense in 2001, according to Figure 15.2? 4. According to Figure 15.7, under what command area does China fall? 5. After reviewing Figure 15.1, how would you describe the American public s views about the role the United States should play in world affairs? PREPARING FOR AN EXAM Essay Questions 1. Describe the myth of vulnerability, providing examples of its changing influence on America s foreign and defense policies in the past century. 2. Outline the rise of the United States to world leadership, identifying the changes in beliefs and policy that occurred between 1800 and 1960. 3. What is soft and hard power? What are some examples of these types of power? Which approach produces the most success? 4. Discuss the powers of the presidency and the administrative bureaucracy in the making of American foreign and defense policy, analyzing their relationship to Congress and the public before and after the end of the Cold War. 5. What are the tools of diplomatic relations, and how have they been used in American history? 6. Is America an empire? Why is this label appropriate or inappropriate to describe America s place in the world today? ANSWER KEY Reading Tables and Graphs 1. There are several bumps seen on this chart. They occur during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and Reagan s presidency. 2. They have actually decreased since 1943. 3. $3,000,000,000,000. 4. USPACOM. 5. A majority of Americans have consistently, since World War II, favored an active role for the United States in world affairs. Essay Questions 1. The underlying theme of Cold War era policy remained in place and was based on the myth of American vulnerability. 1971 U.S. balance of trade figures show that, for the first time in the twentieth century, Americans had imported more than they had exported. 1973 1974 Oil embargo by Arab nations and a subsequent quadrupling of oil prices by member nations of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

60 Chapter 15: Foreign and Defense Policy Mid-1980s The United States became the world s largest debtor nation. 2. America s dominance of the world. Isolationism Unilateralism Monroe Doctrine Expansionism World War I World War II Cold War 3. Hard and soft powers, as posited by Joseph Nye, are two types of power that nations can use in world affairs. The success of their use depends upon how they are applied. Hard power: coercion Military force threat of force Economic power payments or market incentives Soft power: attraction Exposure to cultural norms/values 4. The president plays a major role in foreign and military affairs. During the Cold War, formulating foreign policy was complex, and the president relied on advisers in the National Security Council. National Economic Council. Department of State. Foreign service. Department of Defense. Intelligence-gathering agencies. National security agency. Congress. Certain powers are constitutionally conferred on the president and others on Congress. Senate has power to ratify treaties. Congress can pass legislation. Congress can question key foreign and defense policymakers in its committee hearings. Congress can also use its investigative power. Media influence. Public opinion.

Chapter 15: Foreign and Defense Policy 61 5. There are several tools for establishing and maintaining diplomatic relationships. Make sure your essay supports these points with specific historical examples. Formal recognition Foreign aid Treaties Covert actions 6. The answer to this question will vary depending upon the writer s perspective. The key part of this essay is found in defining the word empire. Empire: classic definition Direct rule of conquered lands without participation or endorsement from inhabitants No substantial examples of this approach being used by Americans Empire: contemporary definition A nation indirectly, but effectively exercises power over the political, economic, and cultural aspects of other countries. Reluctant Imperialist? America as hegemon? The United States is a dominant actor because of its possession of critical resources and its ability to form alliances with regional and local powers. The United States has interests in every part of the world, but it must deal with regional powers when addressing these issues.