to Political Theory Second Edition John Hoffman University of Leicester Paul Graham Glasgow University llliiii PEARSON Longman Harlow, England London New York Boston San Francisco Toronto Sydney Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Seoul Taipei New Delhi Cape Town Madrid Mexico City Amsterdam Munich Paris Milan
Brief Contents XXVII Part 1 Classical Ideas Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 What is Power? The State Freedom Equality Justice Democracy Citizenship Punishment 1 11 36 58 80 101 120 144 : Part 2 Classical Ideologies Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 What is Ideology? Liberalism Conservatism Socialism Anarchism Nationalism Fascism 167 174 195 216 242 264 285 Part 3 Contemporary Ideologies Chapter 14 What is a New Social Movement? Feminism 309 315
vi Brief Contents Chapter 15 Multiculturalism 340 Chapter 16 Ecologism 362 Chapter 17 Fundamentalism 385 Part 4 Contemporary Ideas What do we Mean by a New Idea? 405 Chapter 18 Human Rights 408 Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience 429 Chapter 20 Political Violence 451 Chapter 21 Global Justice 473 Conclusion 493 Glossary 495 Index. 503
Contents Publisher's Acknowledgements Authors' Acknowledgements About the Authors xxi xxiii xxv What is Political Theory? Theory and Action Theory as Abstraction The Distinction between Facts and Values The Contestability Thesis The Structure of the Book The Companion Website Beyond the Book xxvii xxviii xxviii xxix xxx xxxii xxxiv xxxiv xxxv xxxv Part 1 Classical Ideas What is Power? 1 The Link with Other Concepts 2 Power and Authority: an Indissoluble Link? 3 Does a Broad View of Politics Help? 4 Negative and Positive Power 5 Negative and Positive Power as a Relationship 6 Three-dimensional Power and the Problem of Power and Authority 7 Accounting for the 'Indissoluble Link' 8 9 Chapter 1 The State 11 11 11 Test Case: Margaret Thatcher and the State 12
viii Contents How Modern is the Concept of the State? Defining the State The Force Argument The Centrality of Will The State as a Mixture of Will and Force Force and the Modernity Argument The Argument Against the Concept of the State The Behaviouralist Argument The Argument of David Easton David Easton's Concept of the Political System The Linguistic and Radical Argument Problems with the Argument Against the State The Argument of David Easton The Question of Existence Force and Statelessness The Distinction between Force and Constraint, State and Government State and Sovereignty Sovereignty as a Modern Concept Sovereignty as a Broad Concept Problems with the Theories of State Sovereignty Difficulties with the Modernist Conception The Broad View of State Sovereignty Rescuing the Idea of Sovereignty Moving to a Stateless World Globalisation and the State The Case for Global Government Chapter 2 Freedom Test Case: Smoking in the Last Chance Saloon? Berlin's Two Concepts Unfreedom versus Inability Mill on Freedom Freedom of Thought and Expression Freedom of Action Criticisms and Developments Harm to Others Consent Harm to Self - Paternalism Expression and Harm Offensiveness Harmless Wrongdoing
Contents ix The Smoking Ban Reconsidered Harm to Others Consent Harm to Self Offensiveness 53 53 54 54 55 55 55 56 56 57 Chapter 3 Equality Test Case: Does Inequality Make you III? Principles of Equality Moral Equality Moral Autonomy and Moral Equality Nietzsche contra Moral Equality Legal Equality Equal Liberties Do Freedom and Equality Conflict? Material Equality Equal Access Equality of Opportunity Equality of Outcome Affirmative Action Equality of Welfare versus Equality of Resources 58 58 58 59 60 62 62 63 65 66 67 70 70 71 72 74 75 77 77 78 78 78 Chapter 4 Justice Test Case: Just Deserts? What do People Deserve? Theories of Just Distribution Rawls: an Egalitarian Liberal Theory of Justice The Original Position Motivation in the Original Position What would be Chosen in the Original Position? The Democratic Conception: the Two Principles of Justice Would we really Choose the Difference Principle? 80 80 80 81 82 82 83 84 85 86 87
x Contents Nozick: a Libertarian Theory of Justice Nozick's Starting Point: Private Property Rights Just Acquisition - Locke and Nozick Just Transfer Types of Theory Rectification Left Libertarianism Cohen: a Marxist Perspective on Distributive Justice Cohen contra Nozick Cohen contra Rawls 89 89 89 91 92 92 93 94 95 96 99 99 99 100 100 Chapter 5 Democracy Test Case: Zimbabwean Elections June 2000 Democracy and Confusion Democracy and Liberalism The Problem of Exclusion The Tyranny of the Majority' Thesis The Problem of Participation Solutions to the Problem of Low Participation Representational and Direct Democracy Democracy and the State The Ancient Greek Polity and the Problem with Liberalism Democracy and the Relational Argument 101 101 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 110 112 114 115 117 118 118 119 119 Chapter 6 Citizenship Test Case: 'Being British': Pride, Passports and Princes Citizenship and Liberalism Citizenship and Class Citizenship, Marshall and Social Rights Citizenship and the New Right Citizenship and the Case for a Basic Income 120 120 120 121 122 122 123 125 127
Contents xi Citizenship and Women Global Citizenship Citizenship within the European Union Does the State Undermine Citizenship? The Problem of Class Citizenship as a Relational Concept 128 131 133 135 136 139 141 141 141 143 143 Chapter 7 Punishment Test Case: The Ultimate Punishment? What is Punishment? Retributivism Retributivism - the Crude Version Retributivism - the Sophisticated Versions Consequentialism Retributivism versus Consequentialism: the Argument so Far Compromise Theories (Indirect Utilitarianism) Beyond Retributivism and Consequentialism? Censure and Restoration Capital Punishment Retributivism and the Death Penalty Consequentialism and the Death Penalty Respecting Persons versus Using Them Arguments against Capital Punishment Conclusion 144 144 144 145 146 147 147 147 149 151 152 153 155 157 158 159 160 164 164 165 165 166 Part 2 Classical Ideologies What is Ideology? Origins and Development of the Term Isms as Ideologies Mannheim's Paradox: Are we Stuck? Facts, Values and the State 167 167 169 171 172 173
xii Contents Chapter 8 Liberalism Test Case: Prostitution Laws in Sweden The Meaning of Liberalism Liberalism as Toleration The Reformation and Wars of Religion Toleration Contractarianism Hobbes and Liberalism Rights-based Liberalism Locke Locke and Liberalism Kant Kant and Liberalism Utilitarianism Utilitarianism and Liberalism Conclusion: Prostitution Laws 174 174 174 175 176 177 177 180 181 185 186 186 187 187 188 189 190 191 193 193 194 194 194 Chapter 9 Conservatism Test Case: The Monarchy - an Anachronism? Conservatism: an Elusive Ideology? Basic Elements of Conservatism David Hume Edmund Burke Michael Oakeshott Leo Strauss and American Neo-conservatism Conclusion: the Monarchy 195 195 195 196 197 197 200 202 204 208 210 213 214 214 215 215 Chapter 10 Socialism Test Case: Tanks in the Streets of Prague The Problem of Variety 216 216 216 217 219
Contents xiii Defining Socialism 220 The Problem of Utopia 220 Science and the 'Utopian Socialists' 221 Introducing Marxism 223 The Authoritarian Consequences of 'Scientific Socialism' 224 The Inevitability Argument 225 What Happens when Revolutions are 'Bourgeois' in Character? 225 What Happens when Revolutions are 'Pre-mature'? 226 Rosa Luxemburg, the Bolshevik Revolution and Stalinism 227 The Concept of Class War and the Problem of Morality 227 The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism 228 Eduard Bernstein and the German Socialists 229 Bernstein, Revisionism and the British Tradition 230 Bernstein's Argument 230 The British Labour Party and the Fabians 231 The Labour Party, Constitutionalism and the Trade Unions 232 Blair's Socialism 232 International Social Democrats 233 Socialism and the USA 233 British Labour and the 'Third Way' 234 Can Marxism be Rescued? 234 The Notion of Revolution 234 The Inevitability Problem and the Liberal Tradition 235 The Question of Class and Agency 235 Socialism and Inevitability 237 The Problem of Utopianism 237 239 240 240 241 241 Chapter 11 Anarchism 242 " 242 242 Test Case: Death in Genoa 243 The Relationship with Socialism 245 Philosophical Anarchists 245 Free-market Anarchists 247 Anti-Capitalist Anarchists: Proudhon, Bakunin and Kropotkin 249 Republican Spain and the Anarchist Experience 251 The Problem of Violence 254 Anarchism and the New Social Movements 255 The Problem of Organisation and Relationships 257 The Problem of Hierarchy 258 The Question of Self-determination and Constraint 258 Anarchism and the Distinction between State and Government 260
xiv Contents 261 262 262 262 263 Chapter 12 Nationalism 264 264 264 Test Case: Only a Game? 265 Nations and Nationalism 266 Citizenship - 'Civic' and 'Ethnic' Nationalisms 268 Citizenship and Civic Nationalism 270 Liberalism and Nationalism: Mill and Herder 272 John Stuart Mill 274 Johann Gottfried von Herder 275 Socialism and Nationalism: Marx and Engels 275 Liberalism and Nationalism: Individualism versus Communitarianism 277 Conclusion: Football and Banal Nationalism 281 282 282 282 283 284 Chapter 13 Fascism Test Case: 'Never Again' Defining Fascism Fascism and Communism Fascism and Religion Fascism and Liberalism Fascism and Conservatism Fascism in Italy Nationalism and War Corporativism, Violence and the State Intellectual Roots Fascism in Germany A Brief History Anti-Capitalism Statism, Women and Colonialism Fascism and Capitalism Fascism, Liberalism and the Enlightenment The State of Nature, Equality and the Individual Nationalism Rationality 285 285 285 286 287 287 288 288 289 289 290 290 292 293 293 294 295 298 300 300 301 301
Contents xv Fascism, Stalinism and the State 302 Stalinism 302 Fascism Today 304 The Unrepentant Apologists 304 The Holocaust Deniers 304 The Critical Fascists 305 Eurofascism 305 Nationalist Salvation 305 307 307 308 308 308 Part 3 Contemporary Ideologies What is a New Social Movement? 309 Social and Economic Change 310 Critique of Classical Ideologies 313 314 Chapter 14 Feminism 315 315 315 Test Case: Women's Work? 316 Liberal Feminism 318 Mary Wollstonecraft 318 John Stuart Mill 319 Liberal Feminism in Britain and the USA 319 Problems with Liberal Feminism 321 Radical Feminist Critique 321 Socialist Feminist Critique 321 Other Critiques 322 Socialist Feminism 322 Engels' Contribution 323 Bebel and Later Socialists 323 Women in the Communist Party States 324 The Domestic Labour Debate 324 Problems with Socialist Feminism 325 Liberal Feminist Critique 325 Radical Feminist Critique 325 Black Feminist and Philosophical Feminist Critique 326 Radical Feminism 326
xvi Contents Problems with Radical Feminism 328 Liberal Feminist Critique 328 Socialist Feminist Critique 328 Black Feminist and Philosophical Feminist Critique 329 Black Feminism 331 Problems with Black Feminism 332 Liberal, Socialist and Radical Feminist Critiques 332 The Critique of Philosophical Feminisms 332 Philosophical Feminisms 333 Feminist Empiricism 333 Standpoint Feminism 333 Postmodern Feminism 334 Problems with the Philosophical Feminisms 335 Liberal Feminist Critique 335 Socialist, Radical and Black Feminist Critiques 335 337 337 338 338 339 Chapter 15 Multiculturalism 340 340 340 Test Case: Religious Dress Ban: Equality or Oppression? 341 What is Multiculturalism? 342 Culture, Race, Ethnicity and Religion 342 Culture 342 Race and Ethnicity 343 Religion 344 Multiculturalism and Islamic Radicalisation 345 Multiculturalism and the Politics of Identity 347 Theories of Multiculturalism 348 Multiculturalism as Hybridity (Jeremy Waldron) 348 The Right to Cultural Membership (Will Kymlicka) 349 Constitutional Diversity (James Tully) 350 An Overlapping Consensus (John Rawls) 351 Multiculturalism and Feminism 354 The Feminist Case against Multiculturalism (Susan Okin) 355 Responses to Okin 356 Conclusion: Head Scarves and Women's Rights 358 359 359 360 360 361
Contents xvii Chapter 16 Ecologism Test Case: Nuclear Power? Yes Please! Ecologism or Environmentalism? Environmental Crisis Green Politics Environmentalism and Other Ideologies Aldo Leopold and the 'Land Ethic' Arne Naess and 'Deep Ecology' Garrett Hardin and the Ethics of the Lifeboat Critique of Ecologism Do Ecologists have a Plausible Account of why we should Value 'Nature'? Can Ecologists Respect the Created World - that is, Culture? Are Ecologists Hostile to Individualism (or Individual Human Rights)? Are Ecologists Hostile to Reason and Rationality? Is Ecologism Compatible with Human Equality? Is Ecologism Compatible with Value Pluralism? 362 362 362 363 364 365 366 367 369 371 373 376 376 378 379 380 381 382 382 383 383 383 383 Chapter 17 Fundamentalism Test Case: The Diversity of Fundamentalisms Label or Concept? Fundamentalism and Religion Fundamentals and Fundamentalism Modernity and Tradition Fundamentalism, Democracy and Violence What is Islamic Fundamentalism? American Fundamentalism and the Religious Right Jewish Fundamentalism and the Israeli State The 'Clash of Civilisations': a Fundamentalist Thesis? 385 385 385 386 387 387 389 390 392 393 395 397 400 401 402 402 403 404
xviii Contents Part 4 Contemporary Ideas What do we Mean by a New Idea? 405 Chapter 18 Human Rights Test Case: Free to Believe? Human Rights after Nuremberg Human Rights Conventions Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) European Convention on Human Rights (1950) Why the UDHR and the ECHR are Significant Rights - Some Conceptual Issues Relativism versus Universalism Intuition and Consensus (Donnelly) Contractualism (Rawls) Rational Entailment (Habermas) Natural Rights (Finnis) Cruelty and Solidarity (Shklar and Rorty) Conclusion: Article 18 408 408 408 409 410 413 413 414 415 415 416 417 419 421 423 425 426 427 427 427 428 428 Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience Test Case: Protest and Survive? Civil Disobedience and Law-breaking Law-breaking Civil Disobedience and Political Obligation Civil Disobedience and Democracy Democracy and Obedience Fair Compromise Problems with Democracy Rawls: Civil Disobedience and Conscientious Refusal The Context The Obligation to Obey the Law The Nature and Role of Civil Disobedience Conscientious Refusal Criticisms of Rawls 429 429 429 430 431 431 432 433 433 434 435 437 437 437 438 440 441
Contents xix Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights Movement Historical Background to the Civil Rights Movement The Civil Rights Movement Bus Boycotts Freedom Rides Sit-ins Electoral Registration Campaigns Martin Luther King, 'Letter from Birmingham City Jail' (1963) 442 442 443 444 445 445 446 446 449 449 450 450 450 Chapter 20 Political Violence 451 451 451 Test Case: 9/11 and its legacy 452 Liberalism and the Question of Violence 453 The State and Political Violence 453 An Assessment of Salmi 454 Distinguishing Between Political Violence and Terrorism 455 The Just War 457 Political Violence, Ambiguity and the Liberal State 457 Marx on the Problem of Political Violence 459 The Leninist and Maoist Position on Political Violence 460 A General Theory of Political Violence? 462 The Roots of Political Violence 463 The Problem of Violence and the State 464 The Force/Violence Distinction and the Analysis of Political Violence 466 The Significance of September 11 th 467 469 470 470 471 472 Chapter 21 Global Justice Test Case: Famine - whose Responsibility? Famine Singer on Famine Sen on Famine Ethical and Political Implications 473 473 473 474 475 475 475 477
xx Contents Cosmopolitanism Particularism Political Conception Justice between Generations 478 480 484 488 490 491 491 491 492 Conclusion Academic Political Theory and Politics 493 493 Glossary 495 Index 503 Supporting resources Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/hoffman to find valuable online resources Companion Website for students Additional case studies Extended essays on topics such as rights, property, and political obligation Guide to studying political theory Multiple choice tests Links to web resources Short introductions to key thinkers and texts Also: The Companion Website provides the following features: Search tool to help locate specific items of content E-mail results and profile tools to send results of quizzes to instructors Online help and support to assist with website usage and troubleshooting For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales representative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/hoffman