TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 Table of Contents Main findings of the joint EC/OECD seminar on Naturalisation and the Socio-economic Integration of Immigrants and their Children by Thomas Liebig... 15 Part I. Naturalisation and the Labour Market Outcomes of Immigrants: An Overview Chapter 1. Citizenship and the Socio-economic Integration of Immigrants and their Children: An Overview across EU and OECD Countries by Thomas Liebig and Friederike Von Haaren Introduction... 24 1.1. Citizenship take-up among immigrants...26 1.2. The labour market outcomes of naturalised and non-naturalised immigrants... 32 1.3. Labour market outcomes of children of immigrants and the association with host-country nationality... 43 1.4. The impact of naturalisation on immigrants labour market outcomes... 45 1.5. Conclusions... 48 Notes... 51 References... 55 Annex 1.A1. Methodology... 58 Annex 1.A2. Supplementary tables... 60 Chapter 2. The Current Status of Nationality Law by Nicole Guimezanes Introduction... 66 2.1. Dual nationality... 67 2.2. Acquisition of nationality at birth... 68 2.3. Acquisition of nationality by naturalisation... 69 2.4. Other ways of acquiring nationality... 72 2.5. Loss of nationality... 73 2.6. Conclusions... 74 Notes... 75 References... 79 Annex 2.A1. The main laws on nationality... 80 Annex 2.A2. Supplementary tables... 81 Part II. The Impact of Naturalisation on Immigrants Labour Market Integration: Experiences from EU and OECD Countries Chapter 3. The Impact of Naturalisation on Labour Market Outcomes in Sweden by Mattias Engdahl Introduction... 100 3.1. General framework on benefits and costs of acquiring Swedish citizenship... 100 3.2. Data, sample restrictions and empirical specification... 102 3.3. Labour market outcomes... 103
8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3.4. Conclusions... 105 Notes... 106 References... 107 Annex 3.A1. Variable definitions... 108 Annex 3.A2. Tables... 109 Chapter 4. How Acquring French Citizenship Affects Immigrant Employment by Denis Fougère and Mirna Safi Introduction... 132 4.1. The acquisition of citizenship and labour market integration in France... 132 4.2. Measuring the association between naturalisation and immigrants access to employment... 134 4.3. Conclusions... 139 Notes... 140 References... 143 Chapter 5. The Impact of Naturalisation on Immigrant Labour Market Integration in Germany and Switzerland by Max Friedrich Steinhardt Introduction... 146 5.1. Germany... 146 5.2. Switzerland... 148 Notes... 150 References... 151 Chapter 6. Citizenship Acquisition in Canada and the United States: Determinants and Economic Benefit by Garnett Picot and Feng Hou Introduction... 154 6.1. Becoming a citizen of Canada or the United States... 154 6.2. Does citizenship acquisition improve economic outcomes?... 155 6.3. The determinants of naturalisation... 165 6.4. The rise of a naturalisation rate gap between Canada and the United States... 167 6.5. Conclusions... 177 Notes... 178 References... 181 Chapter 7. The Labour Market Outcomes of Naturalised Citizens in Norway by Bernt Bratsberg and Oddbjørn Raaum Introduction... 184 7.1. Potential gains and losses from host-country citizenship... 185 7.2. Data... 186 7.3. Empirical analysis... 191 7.4. Discussion... 201 7.5. Conclusions... 202 Notes... 203 References... 205
TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 Part III. Naturalisation and Social Cohesion Chapter 8. Social Cohesion and Host Country Nationality among Immigrants in Western Europe by Christel Kesler and Neli Demireva Introduction... 210 8.1. Social capital, social cohesion, diversity and citizenship acquisition... 211 8.2. Data source and variables... 213 8.3. Empirical results... 214 8.4. Conclusions... 224 Note... 226 References... 227 Annex 8.A1. Number of immigrants in the sample... 232 Annex 8.A2. Additional coefficients.... 233 Chapter 9. Naturalisation and Social Inclusion by Pieter Bevelander Introduction... 238 9.1. Social inclusion... 238 9.2. Consequences of naturalisation... 239 9.3. Migrant voting: earlier studies... 240 9.4. Citizenship and voting... 242 9.5. Conclusions.... 245 Note... 246 References... 247 Annex 9.A1. Regression results on voting for Swedish residents... 250 Chapter 10. Integration and Access to Nationality in EU Member Countries by Yves Pascouau and Philippe De Bruycker Introduction... 252 10.1. Quantitative approach... 253 10.2. Knowledge of the language... 254 10.3. Knowledge of the host society... 255 10.4. National diversity and European co-ordination... 256 Notes... 259 Chapter 11. Naturalisation and the Promotion of the Social Integration of Immigrants in Quebec by Yvan Turcotte Introduction... 262 11.1. Immigration policies aimed at permanent settlement... 262 11.2. The right of permanent residence and citizenship... 263 11.3. Access to citizenship: an indicator of integration?... 264 11.4. Social participation... 266 11.5. Conclusion: a paradox... 270 References... 273
10 TABLE OF CONTENTS Part IV. The Interactions between Naturalisation Policy and Other Elements of the National Integration Policy Mix Chapter 12. Policy Interactions in Belgium by Mélanie Knott and Altay Manço Introduction... 278 12.1. Obtaining Belgian nationality through naturalisation: changing conditions... 278 12.2. Integration and the various indicators for measuring it... 284 12.3. Conclusion: is naturalisation a means of integration?... 292 Notes... 296 References... 297 Chapter 13. The Legal Framework on Economic Migration and Naturalisation in the United Kingdom by Chris Hedges Introduction... 302 13.1. Legislative summary... 304 13.2. Legal provisions in relation to grants of British citizenship... 306 13.3. Definitions... 306 13.4. Statistical summary... 307 13.5. Basis of grant... 307 13.6. Renunciation of British citizenship... 308 13.7. Reasons for refusal... 308 Notes... 309 Annex 13.A1. Brief summary of the relevant provisions... 310 Chapter 14. Citizenship in Australia by David Smith, Sanuki Jayarajah, Taya Fabjianic and Janice Wykes Introduction... 314 14.1. History of Australian migration, integration and citizenship policies (1900 to present)... 314 14.2. Citizenship conferrals... 316 14.3. Characteristics of citizens... 318 14.4. Variation by birthplace... 320 14.5. Variation by years since arrival... 321 14.6. Variation by birthplace and years since arrival... 323 14.7. The relationship between citizenship and labour market outcomes... 324 14.8. Do their jobs differ?... 326 14.9. Impact of the length of stay on the labour market performance... 328 14.10. Conclusions... 330 Notes... 331 References... 333 Chapter 15. From Assisting to Requiring Integration: Selective Citizenship Policies in the Netherlands by Kees Groenendijk Introduction... 336 15.1. Policy on immigrant integration: twice a new paradigm... 336 15.2. Acquisition of nationality by naturalisation: restriction, liberalisation, restriction... 339 15.3. Effects of new rules and tests: numbers and selection... 343 15.4. The recent close relation between integration and naturalisation policy... 345 15.5. Effects of naturalisation and integration policy on immigrant integration... 345 Notes... 349 References... 351
TABLE OF CONTENTS 11 Figures Figure 1.1. Share of foreign-born who have been resident for at least ten years and who have the host-country nationality, selected OECD countries, by gender, around 2007... 27 Figure 1.2. Employment rates for immigrants by citizenship status, around 2007... 32 Figure 1.3. Public sector share of total employment, naturalised and non-naturalised immigrants, as a proportion of the public sector share for native-born persons, around 2007.... 39 Figure 1.4. Percentage of native-born children of immigrants from lower-income countries who have the host-country nationality, aged 20-29 and not in education, around 2007... 43 Figure 4.1. The effect of professional category on the probability of naturalisation between two censuses..... 136 Figure 4.2. The effect of educational level on the probability of naturalisation between two censuses... 136 Figure 7.1. Immigrant inflows, 1985-2007, and naturalisations, 1992-2007... 187 Figure 7.2. Naturalisation rate and per-capita GDP by source country... 188 Figure 7.3. Share of immigrants that are naturalised by years since arrival, major source regions... 189 Figure 7.4a. Employment profiles by naturalisation status, men... 191 Figure 7.4b. Employment profiles by naturalisation status, women... 192 Figure 7.5a. Log earnings profiles by naturalisation status, men... 193 Figure 7.5b. Log earnings profiles by naturalisation status, women... 193 Figure 7.6a. Self-sufficiency by naturalisation status, men... 194 Figure 7.6b. Self-sufficiency by naturalisation status, women... 194 Figure 8.1. Nationality and experiences of discrimination... 215 Figure 8.2. Nationality and satisfaction with country... 217 Figure 8.3. Nationality and political interest... 218 Figure 9.1. Influence of country of birth and citizenship on voter participation: results from instrumented regression controlling for demographic and social-economic characteristics... 244 Figure 9.2. Impact of citizenship on voter participation: results from nine separate instrumented regressions (by geographical area)... 244 Figure 10.1. Integration testing for naturalisation in EU countries... 253 Figure 11.1. Percentage of naturalised Canadian citizens among immigrants residing in Canada in 2006 by country of birth (15 main countries)... 265 Figure 11.2. Percentage of naturalised Canadian citizens among immigrants residing in Quebec in 2006 by country of birth (15 main countries)... 265 Figure 11.3. Rate of social participation of the population in various types of organisations by generation... 266 Figure 11.4. Rate of social participation of the population by generation and length of residence....... 267 Figure 11.5. Rate of voter participation of naturalised immigrants by length of residence... 268 Figure 11.6. Feeling of having been discriminated against or treated unfairly during the previous five years for total population and non-visible and visible minorities... 268 Figure 11.7. Rate of participation of immigrants and of the total population in certain protest activities in Canada... 269 Figure 11.8. Rate of participation of the total population and immigrants in certain protest activities by length of residence and estimated degree of repression in the country of origin.. 269 Figure 12.1. Number of naturalisation applications and of naturalisations granted in Belgium between 1998 and 2008... 280 Figure 12.2. Data on the naturalisation of Turkish-born people living in Belgium, several years... 283 Figure 12.3. Percentage of naturalised persons among Turkish-born Belgians, several years... 284
12 TABLE OF CONTENTS Figure 14.1. Citizenship conferrals and permanent additions, 2001-01 to 2009-10... 318 Figure 14.2. Citizenship rates by years since arrival... 322 Figure 14.3. Citizenship rates by years since arrival: selected census years... 323 Figure 14.4. Citizenship rates by years since arrival (selected birthplaces)... 324 Figure 14.5. Participation rates of citizens and non-citizens by year of arrival... 329 Figure 14.6. Full-time employment rates of citizens and non-citizens by year of arrival... 329 Figure 14.7. Unemployment rates of citizens and non-citizens by year of arrival... 330 Figure 15.1. Applications for naturalisation, 1994-2008... 344 Tables Table 1.1. Naturalisation rates by region of origin, around 2007... 28 Table 1.2. Percentage of foreign-born who have the nationality of the host country, 1999/2000 and 2007/08, by region of origin, selected European OECD countries... 29 Table 1.3. Share of low- and high-educated immigrants by citizenship status and origin, around 2007... 31 Table 1.4. Estimated higher probability to be in employment associated with naturalisation, around 2007... 34 Table 1.5. Share of employed immigrants who are in high-skilled occupations, by gender and citizenship status, around 2007... 35 Table 1.6. Estimated higher probability of employment in a high-skilled occupation associated with naturalisation, around 2007... 36 Table 1.7. Estimated higher wage associated with naturalisation, by origin, selected OECD countries, around 2008... 38 Table 1.8. Estimated probability to be employed in the public sector associated with naturalisation, around 2007... 40 Table 1.9a. Share of native- and foreign-born who participated in on-the-job training, by citizenship status, around 2007... 42 Table 1.9b. Estimated higher probability associated with naturalisation to have participated in on-the-job-training, by origin, around 2007... 42 Table 1.10. Higher (+) or lower (-) probability for key labour market outcomes for naturalised compared with non-naturalised, children of immigrants aged 15-34 and not in education, around 2007... 44 Table 1.A2.1. Citizenship acquisition by foreigners in OECD countries since 1999... 60 Table 1.A2.2. Employment rates of foreign-born men by citizenship status and origin, around 2007... 61 Table 1.A2.3. Employment rates of foreign-born women by citizenship status and origin, around 2007... 62 Table 1.A2.4. The association between naturalisation and the probability to be self-employed, selected OECD countries, around 2007... 63 Table 1.A2.5. Longitudinal studies on the impact of naturalisation on the labour market outcomes of immigrants... 64 Table 2.A2.1. Nationality of origin (by birth)... 82 Table 2.A2.2. Simplified naturalisation... 86 Table 2.A2.3. Acquisition of nationality by naturalisation... 90 Table 2.A2.4. Acquisition of nationality other than by naturalisation or marriage... 92 Table 2.A2.5. Naturalisation by marriage... 93 Table 2.A2.6. Loss of nationality... 94 Table 3.A2.1. Incidence of citizenship by years since immigration and birth region... 109 Table 3.A2.2. Citizenship by immigration cohort ten years after immigration... 109
TABLE OF CONTENTS 13 Table 3.A2.3. Means and standard deviations of variables, full sample five and ten years after immigration..... 110 Table 3.A2.4. Correlation between naturalisations and earnings, men... 111 Table 3.A2.5. Correlation between naturalisations and earnings, women... 112 Table 3.A2.6. Correlation between naturalisations and employment status, men... 113 Table 3.A2.7. Correlation between naturalisations and employment status, women... 114 Table 3.A2.8. Impact of naturalisations on log earnings, men... 115 Table 3.A2.9. Impact of naturalisations on earnings, women... 116 Table 3.A2.10. Impact of naturalisations on employment, men... 117 Table 3.A2.11. Impact of naturalisations on employment, women... 118 Table 3.A2.12. Impact of naturalisations on earnings, leads and lags, men... 119 Table 3.A2.13. Impact of naturalisations on earnings, leads and lags, women... 122 Table 3.A2.14. Impact of naturalisations on employment, leads and lags, men... 125 Table 3.A2.15. Impact of naturalisations on employment, leads and lags, women... 128 Table 4.1. Coefficients associated with the interaction effect between naturalisation and country of origin in the employment equation of a bivariate probit model... 138 Table 6.1. Labour market outcomes by citizenship among immigrants, Canada... 158 Table 6.2. The advantage in labour market outcomes associated with citizenship among immigrants, Canada... 159 Table 6.3. Labour market outcomes by citizenship among immigrants, United States... 160 Table 6.4. The advantage in labour market outcomes associated with citizenship among immigrants, United States... 161 Table 6.5. Citizenship rates among immigrants aged 25 or over, United States and Canada... 167 Table 6.6. Changes in the characteristics of immigrants aged 25 and over in the United States and Canada... 169 Table 6.7. Citizenship rates among immigrants aged 25 or over by cohort and period of immigration... 171 Table 6.8. Changes in citizenship rates among immigrants aged 25 or over for selected source regions and countries, Canada... 173 Table 6.9. Changes in citizenship rates among immigrants aged 25 or over for selected source regions and countries, United States... 174 Table 6.10. Decomposition of changes in citizenship rates, 1971-2006, Canada and the United States... 175 Table 6.11. Decomposition of changes in citizenship rates, 1971-2006, Canada and the United States excluding Central/South American immigrants... 176 Table 7.1. Immigrant cohorts subject to analysis... 189 Table 7.2. Descriptive statistics of analysis samples... 190 Table 7.3. Estimated impact of naturalisation on employment... 195 Table 7.4. Estimated impact of naturalisation on log earnings... 197 Table 7.5. Estimated impact of naturalisation on self-sufficiency... 197 Table 7.6. Employment change before and after naturalisation... 199 Table 7.7. Log earnings growth before and after naturalisation... 199 Table 7.8. Naturalisation and the probability of moving abroad... 201 Table 8.1. Gross differences between naturalised and non-naturalised immigrants on measures of social cohesion... 216 Table 8.2. Models predicting social cohesion outcomes, pooled sample... 220 Table 8.3. Models predicting social cohesion outcomes, pooled sample with country interaction effects..... 222 Table 8.A1.1. Number of immigrants in the sample by country of residence and naturalisation status... 232
14 TABLE OF CONTENTS Table 8.A2.1. Additional coefficients for models in Table 8.2... 234 Table 8.A2.2. Additional coefficients for models in Table 8.3... 235 Table 12.1. Acquisition of Belgian nationality by country of previous nationality... 283 Table 12.2. Unemployment rate by nationality and place of birth... 288 Table 14.1. Citizenship conferrals by nationality... 317 Table 14.2. Citizenship numbers and take-up rates of overseas-born by selected characteristics... 319 Table 14.3. Employment outcomes overseas-born citizens and non-citizens aged 25-44... 325 Table 14.4. Employment characteristics of foreign-born citizens and non-citizens aged 25-44.... 327 Table 15.1. Number of persons naturalised and naturalisation rate, 1990-2008... 343