CRIMINAL LAW: TEXT AND MATERIALS

CRIMINAL LAW: TEXT AND MATERIALS Fifth Edition by C. M. V. CLARKSON, B.A.,LL.B.,LL.M. Trofessor oflaw, University ofleicester H. M. KEATING, LL.M. Senior Lecturer in Law, University ofsussex LONDON SWEET & MAXWELL 2003

xvii CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments TableofCases Table ofstatutes Table ofstatutory Instruments v vii xxv xlv li 1. CRIMEANDPUNISHMENT 1 I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. WHATCONDUCTOUGHTTOBECRIMINAL? 3 A. Introduction 3 B. Criteria for Criminalisation 4 1. Wrongful conduct 4 2. Is it necessary to employ thè criminal law? 18 3. Is it permissible to criminalise thè conduct? 23 C. Conclusion 25 III. PUNISHMENT 25 A. Retribution 26 1. Vengeance 26 2. Expiation 27 3. Desert 28 4. Censure or denunciation 33 B. Deterrence 35 1. Individuai deterrence 35 2. General deterrence 36 3. Educative deterrence 41 C. Incapacitation 46 D. Rehabilitation 53 E. Combining thè Theories 60 1. Whomay bepunished? 61 2. How severely do we punish? 63 3. What type of punishment? 67 F. Sentencing Guidelines 68 1. United States 70 2. England and Wales 74 2. THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY I INTRODUCTION 82 II ACTUS REUS 84 A. Introduction 84 B. Constituent Elements of Actus Reus 85 C. The Act must be Voluntary 87

Contents D. Status Offences E. Omissions 1. Dutytoact 2. Performance of duty 3. Distinguishing positive acts from omissions 4. Omissions and causation 5. A generai duty to act? Ili MENS REA A. Blame and Responsibility B. Blame and Mens Rea 1. Intention 2. Recklessness 3. Negligence 4. Levels of culpability IV RELATIONSHIP OF MENS REA TO ACTUS REUS A. Introduction B. Coincidence of Actus Reus and Mens Rea C. Transferred Malice D. Mistake 1. Mistake as to element of actus reus 2. Mistake as to a defence element 3. Mistake as to law V DISPENSINGWITH MENS REA 1. The problem of proof 2. Dualism 3. Determinism VI. STRICT LIABILITY 1. Introduction 2. The law 3. Defences to strict liability 4. Are strict liability offences justifiable? 5. Strict liability and thè European Convention on Human Rights 6. Enforcement 7. Sentencing 8. Conclusion VII CORPORATE CRIMINAL LIABILITY A. Introduction B. The Law 1. Vicarious liability 2. Direct liability: thè identification doctrine C. The Law in Action D. Restructuring Corporate Criminal Liability 1. Aggregation doctrine 2. Reactive corporate fault 3. Corporate mens rea doctrine E. Specific Corporate Offences F. Corporate or Personal Criminal Liability G. Punishment of Companies y<j 96 97 105 106 107 108 X lo 1 lo -J- Q 121 143 172 177 179 179 180 184 188 189 197 204 209 210 213 216 221 221 222 231 235 242 243 245 245 246 246 248 248 250 254 259 259 260 261 262 264 266

Contents xix 3. GENERAL DEFENCES 270 I JUSTIFICATION AND EXCUSE 270 A. Introduction 270 B. Justification 272 C. Excuses 274 D. Exemptions 279 E. Significance of Distinctions 280 II CONSENT 283 A. Introduction 283 B. The reality of consent 284 C. The nature and degree of thè harm 287 D. Reform proposals 297 E. The rationale of consent as a defence 298 III. SELF-DEFENCE 299 A. Introduction 299 B. The triggering conditions 300 1. Threatof unjustified harm 301 2. Protected interests 302 C. The permitted response 303 1. Necessity for any defensive action 305 2. The amount of responsive force that may be used 307 3. The duty to retreat 312 4. The imminence of threatened attack 314 5. Excessive self-defence 318 IV CHASTISEMENT 321 V DURESS AND NECESSITY 323 A. Introduction 323 B. Duress by Threats 325 1. Rationale of duress by threats as a defence 325 2. Parameters of thè defence 329 C. Duress of Circumstances 350 D. Necessity 353 1. Distinction between necessity and duress of circumstances 354 2. The traditional approach of English law 355 3. Emergence of a new defence? 360 VI SUPERIOR ORDERS 363 VII INVOLUNTARY CONDUCT 365 A. Introduction 365 1. Narrow definition of involuntariness 366 2. Preceding fault 367 3. Cause of involuntariness 368 B. Insanity 369 1. Introduction 369 2. The law 372 C. Àutomatism 395

xx Contents Vili DIMINISHED RESPONSIBILITY 399 A. Introduction 399 B. Theproblem 400 C. Thesolution 400 D. Should thè partial defence of diminished responsibility be retained? 405 IX. INTOXICATION 406 A. Background 406 B. Drunken intent 409 C. Meaning of voluntary intoxication 409 D. Law on voluntary intoxication 411 1. Specific and basic intent 411 2. A partial defence? 420 3. Drunken mistake 420 E. Involuntary intoxication 424 F. "Dutch courage" intoxication 426 G. Intoxication can cause insanity or diminished responsibility 427 H. Reformofthelaw 430 X LACKOFAGE 434 A. Introduction 434 B. Belowtheageof 10 436 C. Above thè age of 10 436 XI SUNDRYDEFENCES 437 4. CAUSATION 438 I INTRODUCTION 438 II APPROACHES TO CAUSATION 441 A. "Policy" Approach 441 B. Mens Rea Approach 442 C. Quest for General Principles 443 1. Hart and Honoré's principles of causation 443 2. Draft Criminal Code 446 III THE LAW'S RESPONSE 446 A. Factual causation 446 B. Legai causation 446 1. Act of third party 447 2. Actofvictim 454 3. Causation and strict liability 460 IV CONCLUSION 461 5. INCHOATE OFFENCES 463 I INTRODUCTION 463 II ATTEMPT 464 A. Criminology of Attempts 464 B. Should there bea Law ofattempt? 464 C. Punishment of Attempts 467 D. The Law 474

Contents xxi 1. Mens rea 474 2. Actus reus 481 III CONSPIRACY 504 A. Introduction 504 B. Should there be a Law of Conspiracy? 505 C. Punishment of Conspiracies 508 D. The Law 509 1. Typesof conspiracy 509 2. Common law conspiracies 509 3. Statutory conspiracy 512 IV INCITEMENT 520 A. Introduction 520 B. Rationale and Punishment of Inckement 521 C. The Law 522 1. Actus reus 522 2. Mens rea 523 3. Impossibility 523 V ENDANGERMENT OFFENCES 525 6. PARTICIPATIONINCRIME 528 I INTRODUCTION 528 II LAW 530 A. Principal Offenders 530 B. Secondary Parties 530 1. Distinct modes of participation? 530 2. Causation 532 3. Assistance and encouragement 533 4. Mens rea of accessories 541 5. Procuring 548 6. Reform proposals: assisting and encouraging crime 550 III THE LIMITS OF ACCESSORIAL LIABILITY 552 A. No Principal Offenders 552 B. Accessory can be Guilty of Graver Offence than thè One Committed 556 C. Withdrawal of Accessories 557 D. Victims Cannot be Accessories 560 E. Accomplices and Transferred Malice 561 IV CONCLUSION 563 1. Blameworthiness 565 2. Causingharm 565 3. Lesser liability and punishment 567 7. NON-FATAL OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON 570 I OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON (NON-SEXUAL) 570 A. The extent and Context of Violence 570

xxii Contents B. The Law 1. Introduction 2. Common assault and battery 3. Aggravated assaults C. Evaluation II SEXUAL OFFENCES A. Introduction 1. The level of offending 2. Rape in context 3. Whatisrape? 4. Sentencing B. The Law 1. Introduction 2. Artws rews 3. Mens rea C. Evaluation 8. HOMICIDE I INTRODUCTION A. The Level of Offending B. Homicide in Context II ACTUS REUS OF MURDER AND MANSLAUGHTER III MURDER A. History 1. Intent tokill 2. Intent to cause grievous bodily harm 3. Constructive malice B. PresentLaw C. Penalty for Murder D. Evaluation 1. The grievous bodily harm rule 2. Woollin test of intention 3. Conclusion IV MANSLAUGHTER A. Involuntary Manslaughter 1. (Subjective) Reckless manslaughter 2. Gross negligence manslaughter 3. Constructive manslaughter 4. Rationale and reform B. Vehicular Homicide 1. Causing death by dangerous driving 2. Causing death by careless driving when under thè influence of drink or drugs 3. Causing death by aggravated vehicle-taking C. Voluntary Manslaughter 1. Provocation 573 573 573 583 595 600 600 600 603 606 607 608 609 611 618 623 626 626 626 626 629 631 631 631 631 632 634 635 639 639 642 650 651 651 652 652 658 665 672 672 680 681 682 682

Contents xxiii 2. Diminished responsibility 720 3. Killing in pursuance of a suicide pact 721 V INFANTICIDE 722 VI THE STRUCTUREOF HOMICIDE OFFENCES 726 A. Rationale of Distinction between Different Categories of Homicide 726 B. Greater Specificity 727 C. Basis of Distinctions 730 D. Unlawful Homicide a Single Offenee 734 9. OFFENCES AGAINST PROPERTY 739 I INTRODUCTION A. The Level of Offending B. The Sociological Background 1. Why do people commit property offences? 2. Social attitudes towards property offences C. The Legai background II THEFT A. Extent and Context B. The Legai Background C. The Law 1. Definition 2. Appropriation 3. Property 4. Belonging to another 5. Dishonesty 6. Intention of permanent deprivation III OFFENCES INVOLVING DECEPTION A. The Sociological Background B. The Legai Background C. The Law 1. Common elements 2. The offences D. Rethinking thè Structure of Deception Offences IV MAKING OFF WLTHOUT PAYMENT A. Introduction B. The Law 1. Actus reus 2. Mens rea 3. Punishment V OTHER PROPERTY OFFENCES A. Sociological Background B. The Legai Background C The Law 1. Robbery 739 739 741 741 744 745 747 747 748 749 749 749 768 772 790 797 805 805 806 807 808 821 835 836 836 837 837 839 839 389 840 841 842 842

xxiv Contents 2. Burglary and aggravated burglary 843 3. Handling stolen goods 848 VI CONCLUSION 851 A. Underlying Rationale 851 B. Structure of Property Offences 851 Index 859