POLI 341: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL POLITICAL THOUGHT Session 5-ARISTOTLE S DEFENSE OF SLAVERY AND THE NATURALNESS OF THE STATE Lecturers: Dr. E. Aggrey-Darkoh & Mr Alex K.D. Frempong Department of Political Science Contact Information: eaggrey-darkoh@ug.edu.gh& kaadupong2002@yahoo.co.uk College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 2016/2017 godsonug.wordpress.com/blog 1
Session Overview Welcome to session 5: Aristotle s Defence of Slavery and the Naturalness of the State. As we indicated in earlier sessions, the milieu within which the political philosophers wrote is very important. Under this session, we specifically want to discuss Aristotle s birth and nativity, his educational background and profession and examine his works and political ideals. We also learn about Aristotle s views on the state and the implications for the naturalness of the state. Aristotle also thinks slavery is natural, we shall therefore find how he justifies this assertion, the criticisms against him, and the usefulness of his perception of slavery in the context of his times. Just relax and enjoy as we venture into the shriŷe of Aristotle. 2
Session outline This session covers the following topics: The Background of Aristotle The Naturalness of the State The Naturalness of Slavery 3
TOPIC ONE THE BACKGROUND OF ARISTOTLE 4
The birth of Aristotle Aristotle was born in Stagira, a Greek colony near Macedonia in 384 B.C. His father, Nichomacus was a physician (doctor) to the family of King Amyntas of Macedon. In 367 B. C., at the age of seventeen (17), Aristotle went to live in Athens and although he spent most of his life in that city, his Macedonian origin prevented him from being an Athenian citizen. This was because in those days every Greek remained the citizen of the city to which his parents belonged. 5
Education and Profession Aristotle studied at Plato s sđhool, the AĐadeŵy, ǁhiĐh at the tiŵe ǁ as the ďest place in Greece for further studies. Aristotle ǁho eŷtered the AĐadeŵy iŷ 3ϲϳ B.C ďeđaŵe the greatest of Plato s students and stayed on till the death of Plato twenty years later in 347 B.C. In 343 B.C. Aristotle returned to Macedonia and became the instructor (tutor) of the young prince of Macedon, Alexander, son of King Philip who had succeeded his father Amyntas. In 335 B. C., twelve years after the death of Plato, Aristotle returned to Athens and fouŷded his oǁŷ sđhool, the LyĐeuŵ, ǁhiĐh also ďeđaŵe as great as Plato s Academy. As head of the Lyceum, Aristotle undertook a number of extensive research projects with his students. The most important research work was the history of a hundred and fifty eight Greek cities, one of which was the Constitution of Athens. In 323 B.C., twelve years after founding his school, Aristotle had to escape from Athens. This was because after the death of Alexander the Great, anti-macedonian sentiments were intensified in Athens. 6
His Works and Political Ideals Aristotle wrote on many subjects, but the most important of them was on politics. Apart from his study of the constitutional history of 158 Greek city states which motivated him to write the Constitution of Athens, he also wrote Ethics and Physics. His most popular work however was the book, Politics. It provides a theory of the nature and function of the state and analyses possible constitutional structures. It also discusses other concepts like equality, justice, property, citizenship and the causes of political instability and revolution. 7
His Works aŷd Political Ideals ;coŷt d No philosopher before him had attempted to provide such an orderly and systematic study of the science of politics. Aristotle says his purpose for writing Politics ǁ as to ĐoŶsider what form of political community is best of all and for those ǁho are ŵost aďle to realize their ideal of life. To achieve that, Aristotle did two things: First, he examined the existing states which were wellgoverned states; Second, he studied other theoretical forms of government which he thought would bring out the best. To Aristotle, existing states were attempt to fulfil the purpose of the state. 8
Aristotle s Criticisŵ of Plato One of the most interesting aspects of Aristotle is his attitude towards some of the writings of Plato. Plato had great influence on Aristotle, but Aristotle did not just accept anything Plato taught or wrote on. Aristotle s oďjeđtioŷs relate to the eduđatioŷ of the philosopher king, law, family, private property, etc. We look at each of these in details below: First, Aristotle accepts the importance of the systematic study of knowledge, but he does not agree that the long course of abstract studies which Plato proposes for the Philosopher King is really the best training for dealing with the affairs of men. The ability to govern or rule is a matter of judgement that is acquired by moral discipline, practice and experience and not by abstract study. 9
Aristotle s Criticisŵ of Plato ;coŷt d Second, Aristotle does not agree with Plato that the intelligence and training of the PK will let him know what is good for society. He rather thinks that the law must be found in the customs, practices and usages of old. Third, Aristotle thinks it is rather simplistic to assume that family affections and loyalties can be a source of weakness. Fourth, Aristotle opposes Plato s aďolitioŷ of priǀ ate property on two grounds: 10
Aristotle s Criticisŵ of Plato ;coŷt d First, the instinct to possess is natural and that property that is commonly owned will be treated with carelessness. Second, one does not necessarily get rid of evils by merely changing institutions and that the fault lies in human nature and not private property per se. In addition, Aristotle does not agree why Plato restricts his abolition of property to only rulers and not to all members of the state. Lastly, Aristotle thinks that the many demands that Plato makes on the PK is unrealistic because it encourages us to look for a degree of knowledge and integrity which is not likely to be found in any society11.
TOPIC TWO THE NATURALNESS OF THE STATE 12
The General Purpose of the State Aristotle has two interesting views about the state: First, that the state is a natural institution, something in accordance with nature and also good in itself. SeĐoŶd, that ŵaŷ is ďy Ŷature a politiđal aŷiŵal ǁho finds realization (self-fulfilment, happiness) only within the political community. These two broad views, as we shall see, will influence several of the issues that Aristotle examines in his book, Politics. It is important to remember also that the state he talks aďout ǁ as the Greek Đity-state. 13
The General Purpose of the State ;CoŶt d According to Aristotle, all associations are instituted for the purpose of attaining some good. This is because all men do all their acts with a view of achieving something, which, in their view, is good. To Aristotle, every state is a kind of association which oversees other association each with its own separate interests. Aristotle indicates that as an association, the state includes all other associations in the society and is the most sovereign (or supreme) of all. The real purpose of the state, therefore, is to be an association of men living together to achieve the best possible life the good life. 14
The General Purpose of the State ;CoŶt d The good life ǁhiĐh is the purpose of Aristotle s ideal state requires conditions both physical and mental. The physical conditions include specifications regarding population, its amount and character, the territory most suitable in size, nature and situation. Aristotle says in his book Politics that man is a political animal. To him, outside the state no man can live. If any man does not live in a state, Aristotle insists that, he is either less than human (a beast) or more than human (a god). In other words, if out of ill-luck any man cannot become a member of the polis, he will be reduced to the level of subhuman and if anybody refuses to live in a state he will be regarded as super-human. 15
The Evolution the State Aristotle views the evolution of society and social institutions from the family, through the village, to the city-state. He bases this principle of growth or historical development on the fact that if we study anything from its origin we can have the clearest view of that thing. From this, Aristotle indicates that the family is the primitive kind of community, brought into being by such elemental (basic) needs as those for shelter, food and the propagation of the race. A higher stage of development is represented by the village which is a union of families; and a still higher stage is the state, which is a union of villages. From this historical perspective he argues that the state is the logical conclusion, the natural and final stage, in the growth of human relations. 16
The EvolutioŶ the State ;coŷt d The next form of association is formed by a number of households or families which group together into the village. The village therefore is a colony of families composed of children and grandchildren who have suckled with the same milk (or descended from one ancestor). Thus the first association (the family) evolves into the second (the village). The next association is formed from a number of villages which are large enough to be reasonably self-sufficient. To Aristotle, the state is the final and perfect association because instead of merely satisfying the bare needs of life, it exists for the sake of the good life. It is from this natural evolution from the family through the village to the state that Aristotle justifies his theory of the naturalness of the state. 17
The Size of the State It is important to remember that in discussing the size of the state Aristotle s fođus is the Đity-state. For Aristotle, if the state is to achieve its purpose of providing the good life, it should not be too large or too small. There must be an appropriate size for the state as there is a normal size for everything else animals, plants, instruments, etc. On this basis, Aristotle provides some guidelines in relation to the size of the state, though he acknowledges that deciding the possible size of the polis is a matter of experience. The best definition of the size of the state is that it must have a population large enough to cater for all needs of a self-sufficient existence, but not so large that it cannot be easily supervised. To Aristotle, an overgrown city in terms of numbers or size is like an overgrown individual. It will be inefficient and miserable. With the optimum size, the citizens will know one another and take part in politics personally. 18
Location of the State Aristotle in his discussion of the location of the state carefully considers the issues of trade, defence and foreign influence and tries to find how best these can be balanced for the benefit of the state. For the purpose of defence, the site should be one from which defenders can easily make a sally (or venture out) but which attackers will find difficult to approach and surround. Aristotle is however conscious of how too much foreign influence can have on the government of the state if it is too close to the sea. On these bases, Aristotle concludes that the city-state should be sufficiently near the sea to be able to defend itself both on land and at sea and to be able to secure necessary goods from abroad and to sell its surpluses. But it should not be too close as to develop undue commercial and maritime interest. 19
Justification for the Naturalness of the State Aristotle justifies the naturalness of the state on eight grounds. These are explained below. First, Aristotle argues that since it is the completion of associations existing by nature, every polis exists by nature, because it has the same quality as the earlier associations (the family and the village) from which it developed. Secondly, he emphasizes the fact that the state is the final stage of the three associations or levels of human relations. He argues that a thiŷg s real Ŷature ĐaŶ ďe properly appreciated when it is fully developed. Thirdly he contends that in the nature of things, the simplest and most primitive comes first in time, while the most complete and perfect comes only later after growth has taken place. 20
Justification for the Naturalness of the State ;CoŶt d Fourthly, Aristotle identifies the nature of a thing with the final or ultimate aim it hopes to achieve Fifthly, Aristotle argues that the state is natural because it is more important than the individual, family or village, in the same sense as the whole is necessarily of greater importance to its parts. Also, the state is also natural because it exists to satisfy the natural inclinations of man in sharing a common view on matters affecting society., Finally, the state is also natural because it is the arena in which ŵaŷ s higher Ŷeeds are satisfied and in which he is able to lead the good life. To Aristotle, it is evident that the polis belongs to the class of things that exist by nature, and that man is by nature an animal intended to live in a polis. 21
Implications of the Naturalness of the State There are at least three implications that flow from Aristotle s ŶaturalŶess of the state. First it follows that there is an inherent impulse in all men towards an association with order in the state Secondly, Aristotle, by declaring that man alone possesses a perception of good and evil, just and unjust, establishes a link between the naturalness of the state aŷd the ĐitizeŶ s oďligatioŷ to oďey laǁ s. Finally, the doctrine of the naturalness of the polis implies the total involvement of the state in every aspect of human life. 22
TOPIC THREE THE NATURALNESS OF SLAVERY 23
Conception of the Complete Household Aristotle makes a number of assumptions about the household in his attempt to explain why slavery is natural. The first assumption is that property is part of the household, and that the art of acquiring property is part of the household management because it is impossible to live well unless the necessary conditions exist. The second assumption is that for household management to be effective the appropriate instruments must be available. The third and the most important assumption, for our purposes here, is that the instruments in a household are partly inanimate and partly animate; some tools are living, others lifeless. To him, a complete household consists of freemen and slaves. Apart from the fact that relationships between man and wife, parent and child which are natural, there is a natural relationship between master and slave. To Aristotle, the use of slaǀ es aŷd of taŵe aŷiŵals is Ŷot ǀ ery differeŷt, for both use their bodies to minister to the needs of life. 24
Justification for Naturalness of Slavery Aristotle justifies his theory of naturalness of slavery in the following ways: He begins with the argument that a possession is regarded as part of something else or belonging to something or someone; and concludes that the slave in the same way belongs to the master and is part of him. Aristotle goes further to argue that there are clear grounds in reason and fact why some people are intended by nature to be slaǀ es. He iŷdiđates that froŵ the hour of their ďirth soŵe are ŵarked out for suďjeđtioŷ, others are for rule. Aristotle further indicates that slavery is justifiable in that it benefits the slave himself naturally. Aristotle boldly insists that nature itself distinguishes between the physique of freemen and slaves, making one strong for manual labour and the other genteel and useful for political life. 25
Justification for Naturalness of Slavery ;coŷt d Perhaps, the most important reason why Aristotle tries so hard to justify slavery is related to politics. Slavery is further justifiable because it is the means whereby freemen have enough leisure, and the good life cannot be led without leisure. In addition, Aristotle draws attention to five positive aspects of the relationship that must exist between a slave and his master. Aristotle argues that while the master must rule his slaves he must do so to the advantage of both of them. He reminds the master that his rule over the slave must be based on moral excellence, which the latter must emulate. He emphasizes that abuse of the slave is injurious not only to the slave but also to the master. He indicates that there should be friendly relationship between the master and his slave instead of only giving him command. He concedes that the slave has a faculty to comprehend reason under his ŵaster s diređtioŷ aŷd that the slaǀ e ŵust ďe guided ďy the ŵaster iŷ the same way as he guides his children. 26
Criticism of Naturalness of Slavery As expected, criticisms have been raised against Aristotle s ĐoŶĐeptioŶ of slaǀ ery as Ŷatural. In the first place, his critics say that Aristotle appears to ignore the uniqueness of every human soul and that in the eyes of God there is complete equality of souls. Aristotle is further criticized because his naturalness of slavery is based on his fundamental assumption of superiority and inferiority as part of the natural order. IŶ aŷother respeđt, it is argued that Aristotle s ǀieǁ s oŷ slavery are as controversial as his views on citizenship. For, example, he excludes all kinds of workers from citizenship. 27
Criticisŵ of NaturalŶess of Slavery ;coŷt d Lastly, Aristotle should not be taken too seriously when he himself admits that there were many more slaves by war and conquest than by nature, in the Greek city-states of his time. IŶ spite of the ĐritiĐisŵs agaiŷst Aristotle s ǀie ǁ s oŷ slaǀ ery, it is important to note that those views were not too extreme in the Greek city-states of his time. The institution of slavery was so common that one could easily think it was natural. Indeed, slaves were regarded as the bottom of the three social classes in the Greek city-state The institution of slavery also played as important a role in the economy of the city-state as wage-earning workers do in a modern economy. 28