Issue: Removal of remaining unexploded ordinance (UXO) from former conflict zones

Forum: GA4 Special Political and Decolonization Committee Issue: Removal of remaining unexploded ordinance (UXO) from former conflict zones Student Officer: Sabhya Chhabria Position: Head Chair Introduction One child was killed and another injured near here. They were carrying sugar cane and one was also carrying some sort of UXO. One of them dropped the UXO and it exploded. My grandchildren heard the bang they ran up to get the scrap metal but instead they found two children terribly injured. One was torn open all down his front with his intestines exposed his body was torn apart. The other child was bleeding from lots of cuts all over his body and a big wound to his stomach. When my children came home they were shocked and shivering at what they had seen. - Grandmother, Salao village, Cambodia 2001 1 Unexploded Ordinance (UXO) has had a disastrous humanitarian impact on civilian populations in the aftermath of war in former conflict zones. Apart from danger to civilian populations this unexploded ordinance holds back other important operations such as reconstruction and redevelopment in war zones. This negative impact of UXO is due to technical failure as they have been left behind or abandoned post conflict. UXO has had a negative impact on many post war zones such as Cambodia, Eritrea and Kosovo to name a few. In recent years, the number of deaths caused by UXO has been equivalent to the number of deaths caused by landmines. Unlike landmines, however, there is neither any legislation that addresses the problem of UXO nor any legal obligation for the users of explosives to ensure that UXO have been removed from the region. The reason why UXO possess such an imminent threat is because most items of ordnance contain, in large part, metal fragmentation that is designed in such a way that it injures people at a distance. In a lot of situations UXO may not be clearly visible over the ground, (they are hidden beneath the ground.) These can be activated unintentionally by potentially unaware civilians. The unpredictability of UXO also poses a challenge that must be dealt with. The chances of UXO detonating depend on various factors such as: whether or not the item has been fire, extent of corrosion, sensitivity and the specific fusing mechanisms of the item. 1 http://www.article36.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/erw_report.pdf Research Report Page 1 of 17

The Hague International Model United Nations 2017 Definition of Key Terms UXO Unexploded Explosive Ordnance: Explosive ordnance which have been prime, fused, armed or otherwise prepared for action which has been fire, dropped, launched, or placed in a manner as to constitute a hazard to operations, installations personnel, or material and remains unexploded either by malfunction or by design or for any other cause. 2 EOD Explosive Ordinance Disposal is defined as the detection, identification, evaluation, render safe, recovery and disposal of UXO. 3 Bomblet An explosive sub munition. Refers to the explosive contents of cluster bombs in this report. 4 Cluster Munitions A weapon that consists of a number of sub-munitions held within a larger single container. Before striking a target the container is designed to open, releasing the sub-munitions to spread over an area on the ground. Cluster munitions are usually dropped from aircraft or fired from rocket systems. All of the cluster strikes in this report were the result of aerial bombing. 5 Mine Action A sector of international aid addressing landmine and UXO contamination through mine/uxo clearance, awareness education and accident survivor assistance. 6 Sub Munition An individual munition that is delivered as one of a number within a larger container. Refers to the explosive contents of cluster bombs in this report. 7 2 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/unexploded+explosive+ordnance 3 http://www.ciria.org/productexcerpts/c681.aspx 4 http://www.article36.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/erw_report.pdf 5 http://www.article36.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/erw_report.pdf 6 http://www.article36.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/erw_report.pdf 7 http://www.article36.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/erw_report.pdf Page 2 of 17 Research Report

Green Munitions This is a nickname given the United States Department of Defense s program to eradicate the use of small arms munitions. Background Information Background information about UXO munitions The term explosive remnants of war is a broad one, that includes a large variety of explosive weapons. These include anti-tank and antipersonnel landmines and unexploded ordnance and abandoned explosive artillery/ordinance. The agenda is concerned with the removal of unexploded ordnance (UXO). UXO comprises of all explosive weapons with the exception of landmines. A broad overview of the what UXO comprises of is: artillery shells, grenades, mortars, rockets and air-dropped bombs as well as explosive sub-munitions (or bomblets) that form the contents of cluster bombs. 8 The reason why UXO is so lethal is because a majority of the ordnance contains a large explosive and unstable charge. This unstable charge is enclosed in a fragmented metal case, that upon exploding breaks up into small pieces that are intended to injure people, sometimes even those who are at large distances from the blast site. UXO can be of various shapes and sizes. They can be either whole or they can be partial. Whole UXO items generally have high potential for damage, however, UXO explosions for whole items of munition tend to be rather uncommon because they are relatively less sense sensitive and are difficult to activate. On the other hand, partial UXO items such as small active fuse that have been removed or abandoned from their main counterpart could be extremely prone to detonation due to their high sensitivity. These types of explosions cause damage on a relatively small scale, but nevertheless they can be lethal. UXO may or may not be clearly visible on the surface. In many cases it may be hidden in the undergrowth or buried underground. In cases where UXO items are not visible on the surface, they are activated by mistake. UXO items tend to be highly unpredictable. This is partly because of the limited data that is available about them. Although there are more factors that add to the unpredictability of UXO items. These include: whether or not the item has been fire, the extent has the item has been degraded or corroded. Most importantly, the inner mechanics and technical aspects of each individual item of UXO are hard to discern from the outside, which makes the treatment of such UXO items even more difficult. The removal of UXO items tends to be rather difficult because similar items may have different 8 http://www.article36.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/erw_report.pdf Research Report Page 3 of 17

The Hague International Model United Nations 2017 responses to stimuli. For example, one item may be removed without having any significant effect and without detonating, while another may explode upon the slightest of touches. As mentioned earlier, there is very little qualitative and quantitative data present to indicate the nature and the threat potential of each item of UXO. However, as has been suggested by multiple studies, the impact of UXO explosions depends on the the type of contamination and the socio-economic circumstances of the communities that have been affected. These factors outweigh the significance of munition type. The severity of the problem is much greater in places where UXO is generally found underground or where there is a high density of UXO items underground. UXO accidents and explosions UXO explosions, in most cases, either result in injury or death of one or more people. Antipersonnel mines on the other hand, are designed to incapacitate their victims. On the other hand, UXO accidents have a much higher chance of taking the lives of their primary victims, usually those who cause the explosion. UXO accidents commonly result in, if not death, high degree burns, puncture wounds, lacerations from broken fragmentation, blindness from fragmentation or from the blast, or even ruptured eardrums. As has been reported, many victims of UXO accidents have had to undergo multiple traumatic limb amputations. UXO accidents can even cause damage to those who are at a distance from the blast. They are likely to experience less severe wounds from the fragmentation. The range of a UXO explosion, however, depends on the type and condition of the weapon at hand. In the most extreme cases, this range can be hundreds of meters. Another way in which UXO accidents differ from landmine accidents is the demographic profile of the UXO accidents. As mentioned previously, the pattern of injuries and deaths resulting from UXO accidents is linked to the nature of the socio-economic conditions in a given location or a given community. The problem of UXO accidents may not seem that prevalent at all due to their low media coverage, however, data that has been collected from Kosovo prove that a greater proportion of deaths have been caused by UXO rather than by landmine explosions. The same is applicable for other countries such as Cambodia, where the number of children who were harmed or killed by landmines was just a third of the equivalent figure for UXO accidents. In Eritrea, among those accidents where the type of device that sparked the explosion was known, accounted for 72% of the deaths and injuries. Let s take Afghanistan for instance. Afghanistan is commonly cited as a country that has been a victim of landmine explosions. However, back in the late 1990s 64% of the accidents were caused by UXO, not landmines. Page 4 of 17 Research Report

UXO contamination is a highly significant issue that has not received the global attention that it so rightfully needs. 9 Scale of the problem When the United Nations initially attempted to quantify the scale of landmine contamination on an international level, it had proved to be problematic. There was little to no evidence, and hence the number of landmines that was calculated was highly unreliable. Due to this, less attention was drawn towards the issue, and to make matters worse, it also undermined public and donor confidence in the meaningful work that could be done in response to the problem. The situation with UXO is not so similar to that of landmines, it is far worse. There is very little data about the quantity of UXO that remains scattered throughout the world, in the post conflict regions. Moreover, the even the data that is available does no fully bring to light the seriousness of this problem. Even the UXO accidents that have occurred till date do not give us a complete picture of the distribution of UXO items in post conflict zones. No significant action can be taken towards the removal of UXO items from post conflict zones unless and until we have significant data about their quantity and their condition. Moreover, any efforts to solve the problems must be practical on both the international and internal level, because of the socioeconomic issues plague affected communities. This report does offer solutions within the aforementioned guidelines further on. UXO contamination has prevented the use of land in many post conflict zones. One of the most harmful features of UXO accidents s the economic costs that they bear. UXO items act as a barrier to infrastructure projects. UXO contamination also has significant impact on family and community economies. Since there is less data available for UXO items, the fear of the presence of UXO items is what prevents land use. As we have seen with multiple European countries in the past, more specifically during the periods post World War I and World War II, the treatment of UXO contamination needs to be extensive. Despite thorough treatment in these European countries, there was still some UXO contamination. The current threat that UXO contamination process in post conflict zones requires a lot more than just emergency assistance. Laos has implemented a fairly effective UXO clearance program from the mid 1990s. They are addressing huge levels of contamination that have resulted due conflicts over 30 years ago. However, the risk of UXO explosions still persists today. Other nations must take note from the Laos clearance program and respond to the threat of UXO contamination by establishing local bodies. 9 http://uxoinfo.com/blogcfc/client/enclosures/uxooverview.pdf Research Report Page 5 of 17

The Hague International Model United Nations 2017 Detailed Information on problems caused by UXO contamination Large number of civilian lives are lost due to UXO accidents. In certain countries more civilian lives are lost to UXO than to landmines. As of today, there are approximately 11 million mines present in the world and an estimated even larger number of UXO. As described earlier, the fragmentation of the UXO items can be extremely lethal. The threat to livelihood presented by UXO contamination is potent and still remains at large. Civilians cannot easily identify ammunitions or UXO and therefore they may be tempted to touch/move them, thereby activating them. Their minute size and appearance do not give away anything about the dangerous impact that they can cause as a result of detonation. This problem is is largely present in rural area where people have no idea what these UXO are. They often mistake these items for other items and activate them. UXO items are generally very sensitive because they are in most cases activated through a partially active, unstable fuse. Land that is contaminated by UXO causes significant problems for farmers that wish to use the land for agricultural or irrigational purposes. This is known as land denial. This land denial can leave many farmers poverty stricken as they cannot carry out their regular economic activity. In extreme cases, entire communities have abandoned areas due to land denial. More economic loss occurs as the presence of UXO prevents the use and rehabilitation of infrastructure such as: housing, water systems, roads, schools, hospitals etc. Thus untreated UXO zones can significantly impact the entire country s economic activity. This is explored in greater detail further on. Sub surface UXOs are extremely hard to deal with. People who are unaware of their presence may accidently detonate these UXOs when working on the land. The unpredictability of the presence of these sub surface UXOs makes it increasingly harder for treatment workers to deal with. The lack of data of UXOs is what brought the issue to light in the first place. To date there is no exact data that has been collected on the presence and number of UXOs around the world. This makes prioritizing difficult for the people trying to deal with this problem. Many countries are unwilling to depart with information pertaining to the use of munitions and explosives at the time of conflict. This makes locating and dealing with UXOs around the world very challenging. In many cases of UXO contamination cluster bombs may be present. Cluster bombs have a higher risk of failure and can cause problems on a much larger scale. When on of the cluster bombs is activated, the explosion automatically sets of the other cluster bombs. This results in large scale destruction. UXO accidents often leave surviving children, who spend the remainder of their lives coping with the traumatic incidents of their pasts. It has been mentioned children are more likely to be victims of UXO explosions. Hence UXO survivors will most likely require long term treatment. Hence UXO accidents have implications for social services as well as the medical services, while simultaneously impacting families and communities on a Page 6 of 17 Research Report

socio-economic level. Hence, people may rely on help from nationally and internationally funded projects, and from non-governmental organisations. The problems that are faced by the UXO survivors depend mostly on the type and nature of their injuries, the support structures that they can avail, and the quality of the medical treatment that they receive. It is impossible to quantify the death of a family member. The primary victims of UXO explosions are often men, who accidently cause these explosions while farming. This leaves widows who are then forced to raise their children, and continue to provide for the family all alone. Hence they are reliant on community support and often fall back upon those institutions mentioned above for assistance. A lot of the countries that are contaminated by UXO items have failed to develop comprehensive policies and frameworks for disposal. As a result the problem was not given enough attention and was not prioritized in the respective countries. Another significant problem caused by UXO contamination is that UXO items are a source of explosive material. In many third world countries, militants usually extract UXO ammunitions for their own use. Due to the lack of data, the authorities would not even be able to confirm how many UXO items have been taken over by militants. Many of the stolen UXO items are then used to produce firearms and are then sold. Reports from law enforcement agencies in Bougainville and the Solomon Islands confirm that WWII materials were used by militants during conflicts. 10 UXO munitions in coastal areas have also been reportedly used in activities such as dynamite fishing. This severely effects the coastal ecosystem both, in the short term and long term. There is a large amount of physical destruction in the short term. In the long run, the affected food webs can cause a significant fall in the level of biodiversity. Psychological impact The possibility of death and of injury instils fear in the minds of the post conflict zones. As described earlier, the presence of UXO prevents people from using their land, which could otherwise have been used as an essential resource. The presence of UXO could also mean less efficient and less productive land use. This fear is a serious problem for those individuals who are still overcoming the traumatic nature of a war that had taken place earlier. The psychological trauma caused by UXO accidents prevents a country from overcoming the effects of conflict and from developing. Moreover, the fear of UXO presence prevents people from using land and thereby decreases the overall productivity of an economy. The prospect of death and injury at the hands of UXO accidents creates fear. This holds back the development of a country and prevents it from overcoming the psychological trauma of war. Many people in post conflict zones may have to live with the constant threat of a UXO accident for a significant portion of their lives. 10 http://www.forumsec.org/resources/uploads/attachments/documents/uxo%20final.pdf Research Report Page 7 of 17

The Hague International Model United Nations 2017 People are afraid of walking on land where UXO is buried and is not visible. In other words, they are afraid that they might inadvertently cause and explosion. Furthermore, people also possess the fear of striking and activating sub surface UXO munitions when they dig for framing and for building houses or other infrastructure. It is also feared that children many come across munition that is visible at the surface and start playing with it, while having no knowledge about the dangerous nature of the UXO item. Economic impact The presence of UXO munitions prevents safe use of land for multiple purposes, such as: infrastructure, personal development, agriculture, collection of wood and other essential resources etc. People fear the use of this land because of the suspected presence of UXO munitions. To make matters worse, there is little to no data available for these people to confirm their fears. Since large areas of land remain underutilized or even unused, there is a negative impact on the families and the larger community. The loss of livelihood, which is most post war zones tends to be agriculture, can lead to hunger stricken and poverty stricken families. In most cases, the UXO items must be moved and relocated to areas of land that are not under use, or else farmers and other workers must find ways to work around them. Both of these solutions are highly dangerous due to the lack of sufficient data. The presence of UXO items prevents the rehabilitation and redevelopment of infrastructure and community resources. These include housing, roads and bridges, schools, markets, clinics, and water and irrigation systems. In order for any construction to be carried out, UXO clearance is a must. This significant impact of development and redevelopment can exacerbate the poverty stricken nature of the communities in post conflict zones. Social and economic factors affecting risk-taking with UXO Most often, men are the primary victims of UXO accidents and explosions in post-conflict zones. Divisions of labour within the community often decide the impact of UXO accidents. In most cases, this impact is determined by the location of work and the type of work that is being carried out. The reason why men tend to be the primary victims of these UXO accidents is because they are generally the ones who undertake agricultural work in post conflict zones. This agricultural work includes ploughing and digging, and there is a high chance that it could be carried out in UXO contaminated zones. Even those men who work in far away or decentralized locations are at a risk of being victims to UXO explosions as the UXO ammunitions may not have been moved from those regions. Another reason why men in post conflict zones are more likely to make contact and interact with these UXO items is because they are likely to have military experience before. If the UXO item looks familiar, then there is a high chance that they will approach the UXO items. Page 8 of 17 Research Report

It has been found that mine awareness and UXO awareness programs do not work well with men who where formerly a part of the nations military. Ex-military personnel often live within unfamiliar structures and may turn to drinking and to drugs. Due to this they may be neglected by the NGOs and may not receive the ideal help that they require. Children are highly influenced by the actions of the people who surround them. They often find that contact with these UXO items may be central to the family economy as they could possibly sell for large sums of money. Additionally, it is difficult to convince the children of the dangers of these UXO munitions in communities that rely on them as an economic resource. It has been found in Cambodia that children often deliberately play with these UXO munitions and often try to use them to make fireworks. In the same community adults extract these same munitions and use it for blast fishing, hence it is difficult to stop the children from using these munitions for their own purposes. There is a high possibility that children may be attracted to these UXO munitions because of their size and shape. In countries like Cambodia and Laos, it has been found that children were attracted to the spherical bomblets that were left behind by the United States military. These small bomblets looked similar to balls that children play with, thereby attracting them. In Kosovo, the UXO items were often of a bright yellow colour and were attached to miniature parachutes. This made them extremely intriguing for children, who inadvertently played with them and activated them. In rural, post conflict zones, children are often entrusted with the responsibility of herding animals. This a job that requires large areas of land, thereby increasing the chances of them coming across a UXO item or accidently activating a sub-surface UXO item. As time passes, the relationship between communities and UXO contamination tends to evolve. The people, over a period of time, gain an understanding of the dangers of the UXO items. Moreover, as the social and economic requirements of the society change, the general use of UXO as a resource also tends to decline. In Laos, people have been subjected to UXO contamination for the past 30 years. In the parts of the country that are heavily contaminated by UXO, the relationship of the community and UXO has developed greatly. The people have established parameters to judge and access the level of threat that is presented by the various types of munitions. Major Countries and Organizations Involved Angola Angola has undergone nearly four decade of conflict. This has left the country heavily contaminated with UXO. The HALO Trust has given $3 million for productive land use. The Mine Research Report Page 9 of 17

The Hague International Model United Nations 2017 Advisory Group has given $1.7 million in funding to dispose 943 UXO items. The Norwegian People s Aid has provided $1.8 million. 11 DRC (Democratic Republic of Congo) The Democratic Republic of Congo underwent conflict from 1996 to 2003. This led to stockpiling of dangerous weapons and has left behind significant UXO. Ethiopia Ethiopia has had ongoing conflicts from as far back as 1935. This has left behind explosive remnants of war in the region. Namibia Namibia was contaminated with UXO items during its fight for independence which spanned from 1966 to 1989. A major incident that took place was the explosion in a storage facility in the northern part of the country. The government has initiated a cleaning programs that works on an as needed basis. Mozambique Mozambique has had to deal with the problem of UXO right from the 1960s, at the time of the Mozambique war for independence, which was followed by a civil war in the country. From 1992, onwards there have been large scale clearance programs in the country which have significantly reduced the number of UXO items and reduced the threat level. Senegal Senegal is also a country that is affected by UXO items, which are mostly as a result of the longstanding conflict between the Senegal Armed Forces and the Separatist Movement in the country. However, once these two groups signed a peace treaty in 2005, clearance operations were initiated. Sudan Sudan has been greatly affected by the UXO items and Small and Light Arms Weapons due to a bitter conflict between the Northern and Southern parts of the country. Afghanistan Afghanistan is severely affected by landmines and UXO items. It is one the most heavily mined countries in the world as it has had ongoing conflict for the past 3 decades. UXO items are used 11 https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/176689.pdf Page 10 of 17 Research Report

deliberately here as targeted explosive devices. Despite this, Afghanistan has made efforts to clear half of these UXO items. HALO has given more than $4.8 million for these operations. 12 Laos Laos was affected significantly at the time of the Vietnam War. The problems faced by LAO have been described sufficiently in other parts of this report. The MAG has given $1.7 million for clearance operations, Laos UXO has given $1.25 million. Other organisation has also donated smaller amounts of funds. 13 Pakistan Pakistan is heavily contaminated with mines and with UXO. This is because of ongoing conflicts with India and because of civil issues in the countries. Vietnam Vietnam has been involved in many conflicts with Japan, France, and the United States right from the time of the first World War. A major conflict was with the United States at the time of the Vietnam War, which left the country significantly contaminated. Kosovo Conflicts between Yugoslavia Security forces and the Kosovo Liberation Army at the time of the breakup of the Republic of Yugoslavia lead to significant accumulation of landmines and UXO munitions. Columbia Colombia s has been involved in frequent legal battles with the FRAC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia), which is a United States Government designated terrorist organisation. This has left the country with a lot of UXO munitions and a lot of IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices) Iraq Iraq is significantly affected by the presence of UXO munitions. The reason behind this high level of contamination is conflict. Major conflicts being the Iraq-Iran War from 1980 1988, the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Operations conducted by the United States in 2003. 12 https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/176689.pdf 13 https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/176689.pdf Research Report Page 11 of 17

The Hague International Model United Nations 2017 Yemen Yemen faces high levels of UXO contamination due to many different conflicts. These are: 1962-1975 war between the republicans and royalists, the 1963-67 war of independence, the 1970 1983 war with the left wing guerrillas and 1994 civil war. United States of America The USA is country responsible for UXO contamination. For example, the Vietnam War contaminated Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and the Iraq invasions contaminated Iraq. United Kingdom The UK is responsible for UXO contamination, most of which occurred during World War I and World War II. NPA (Norwegian People s Aid) Norwegian People's aid is the labour movement s humanitarian solidarity organisation. Norwegian People's aid is a politically independent organisation. Norwegian People s Aid maintains an independent standpoint in relation to its work tasks which, at any given time, are laid down in the organisation s principles programme. Norwegian People s Aid undertakes practical preventive and supportive work at home and abroad. The organisation s value basis is laid down in the principles programme and in the vision Solidarity in action. Norwegian People s Aid is governed by its members through elected boards and committees. One of the four main goals of the NPA is the international clearance of mines and UXOs. 14 UNMACC (United Nations Mine Action Coordination Centre) The UNMACC is the sub division of the United Nations responsible for mine clearance and UXO clearance. MAG (Mines Advisory Group) The MAG is an NGO based in UK that specializes in humanitarian mine action. 14 https://www.npaid.org/about-us Page 12 of 17 Research Report

Timeline of Events Date 28 th July, 1914 11 th November, 1918 1 st September 1939 2 nd September 1945 1 st November 1955 30 th April 1975 Description of Event World War 1, also known as the Great War, took place between 1914 1918. Battles throughout the war took place on multiple fronts. These include: Europe, Africa, Middle East, China, Indian Ocean and the coasts of North & South America. Since the war was on such a large scale and involved a lot countries, many regions were left contaminated with items of unexploded ordnance. 15 World War 2 was a global war that was fought between 1939 1944. It involved all the world s major powers. Much like the first World War, World War 2 was fought on many fronts. These include: Europe, Middle East, South-East Asia, Horn of Africa, North Africa, and China. Hence there was and there still remains large scale UXO contamination in many of these regions. Furthermore, as a result of WW2, large amounts of UXO contamination has been found in water bodies. 16 The Vietnam War between the United States of America and Vietnam lasted for just under 20 years. This left Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia heavily contaminated with UXO items. 17 22 nd September 1980 20 th August 1988 2 nd August 1990 28 th February 1991 This armed conflict began in 1980 when Iraq invaded Iran. The war followed a series of disputes at the borders. Thus the two countries now face sever UXO contamination. From 1980 to 1982, Iraq used more explosive. However, in the last 6 years of the war, the Iranian troops regained strength and were more offensive. 18 The Persian Gulf War was fought in Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the Persian Gulf region. The war left the middle east with dangerously high levels of UXO contamination. 18 th September 1997 Convention on Prohibiting the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti- Personnel Mines and on the Destruction. Details of this treaty are given below. 15 http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/world-war-i-history 16 http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history 17 http://www.historyonthenet.com/vietnam-war-summary/ 18 https://www.britannica.com/event/iran-iraq-war Research Report Page 13 of 17

The Hague International Model United Nations 2017 20 th March 2003 1 st May 2003 10 th January 2008 14 th December 2011 15 th December 2015 The United States and the United Kingdom sent about 160,000 troops to Iraq. The main goal of the invasion was to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction. Resolution 62/99, General Assembly, (10 th January 2008) This resolution provides multiple ways to combat the issue of UXO contamination. Resolution 2026 (2011), Security Council, (14 th December 2011) Passed by the UN Security Council in December 2011. This resolution focuses specifically on mine action in Cyprus. The solutions presented in the region are not very applicable in other regions. This is because of the unpredictability of UXO explosions. The treatment of UXO contamination must be case specific. Resolution A/70/80, General Assembly, (15 th December 2015) This is the latest resolution that was put in place to combat mine action and UXO contamination. This resolution is the most comprehensive and pertinent document present that addresses the issue at hand. The resolution speaks of giving need based assistance and conducting all activity within the established guidelines. The resolution also pushes for the mainstreaming of the issue at hand. Relevant UN Treaties and Events Convention on Prohibiting the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on the Destruction (18 th September 1997) Assistance in mine action of the General Assembly, 10 th January 2008 (A/RES/62/99) Resolution 2026 of the Security Council, 14 th December 2011 (S/RES/2026 (2011)) Assistance in mine action of the General Assembly, 15 th December 2015 (A/RES/70/80) Previous Attempts to solve the Issue The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, also known as the Mine Ban Treaty, as mentioned earlier is comprehensive treaty that is directly targeted towards the eliminating mines. Some of the points in this treaty are specifically concerned about the treatment of UXO contamination. This treaty was one of the first treaties that was developed and has proven to be a great success. The International Campaign to Ban Landmines has been actively working to treat UXO contamination. Its founder Jody Williams received a Nobel Peace Prize in 1997. Many figures in this organisation are currently working towards treatment of UXO contamination. Page 14 of 17 Research Report

The United Nations has also drafted a five-year plan as to how it will go about the eradication of mines and the treatment of the UXOs between the years 2013 and 2018. Each country that is contaminated by UXO implements its own scheme in order to resolve this growing issue. However, most of these schemes have proven to be ineffective and there is a need for better solutions. Possible Solutions The users of explosive munitions (see list above) should be responsible for the clearance of UXO. If they for whatsoever reason are unable to clear these UXO themselves, they must provide sufficient financial assistance to the country/organization that is dealing with the UXO. Areas that are contaminated with UXO items can be fenced off in order to restrict access. This would significantly reduce the number of people who could possibly step on and activate the UXO. However, this is just a short term solution and does not completely eradicate the threat possessed by UXO items. Moreover, this method of prevention is not viable in areas where the land is uneven and the terrain is rugged. Activity in UXO contaminated zones can be limited. This can be done through deed restrictions or through any other means. A deed restriction will prevent any development of property on the land, and further prevent excavation or any earthmoving activities. It is important to put up notices and warning signs throughout the are. The clearance of UXO must be overseen by humanitarian mine action NGOs under the supervision of the United Nations and must follow the recognised International Mine Action Standards (IMAS). A post clearance audit must be conducted by the United Nations to ensure the complete and safe removal of UXOs. Member States responsible for using munitions must provide the United Nations and other relevant organizations with technical information pertaining to the use of explosives and munitions so that they can be located and safely removed. Member States that used explosives that are likely to have a large scale and long term impact must issue warnings immediately and spread awareness among the people who could potentially be affected by these munitions. The users of UXOs should claim responsibility for the survivors and the families of the diseased and should provide them with long term socio-economic rehabilitation. UXO clearance can be integrated with wider development programs to reduce impact before the clearance is complete. Contributions of Member States towards research and development of more efficient ways of dealing with UXOs. Cost-benefit analysis models must be developed to give Research Report Page 15 of 17

The Hague International Model United Nations 2017 representations of how UXO contamination affects societies and how relevant organizations must go about in clearing them. New technologies can be used for the detection of UXO items. The use of a ground penetrating radar is highly recommended. The ground penetrating radar can be remotely controlled and can detect UXO munitions at a significant distance. Other technology such as infrared sensors or ultrasonic sensors can also be used. It is important to increase the R&D in UXO instrument technology, green ammunitions, and munition constituents. With today s advancements in detection technology, this solution can be implemented with ease. 19 Nations that have the capability of doing so, should conduct live-fire training in open ranges so that the relevant authorities are well trained in the safe removal of UXO items from contaminated zones. Bibliography "E-MINE." UN Mine Action Gateway. Accessed June 12, 2017. http://www.mineaction.org/. "Http://ljournal.ru/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/a-2017-023.pdf." 2017. doi:10.18411/a-2017-023. International, Inc. Advanced Solutions. C681. Accessed June 10, 2017. http://www.ciria.org/productexcerpts/c681.aspx. "Iran-Iraq War." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed June 13, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/iran- Iraq-War. "Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Unexploded Ordnance." doi:10.17307/wsc.v1i1.183.s6. "SPECPOL - IMUNA." Accessed June 25, 2017. http://www.bing.com/cr?ig=0b76543f9c514425825e9b4e9ea2a3c0&cid=3aefe04b820b6270264dea8 1830D633D&rd=1&h=QP4ixJ8TMfI6pX5dGterEZVqOqEw6BYAUaNKFMBZ1L4&v=1&r=http%3a%2f%2fww w.imuna.org%2fsites%2fdefault%2ffiles%2fspecpol.pdf&p=devex,5062.1. "Target Prioritization in TEM Surveys for Sub-surface UXO Investigations Using Response Amplitude, Decay Curve Slope, Signal to Noise Ratio, and Spatial Match Filtering." Zonge International. July 17, 2013. Accessed June 25, 2017. http://zonge.com/target-prioritization-in-tem-surveys-for-sub-surface-uxoinvestigations-using-response-amplitude-decay-curve-slope-signal-to-noise-ratio-and-spatial-matchfiltering/. "The Strategy of the United Nations on Mine Action 2013-2018." http://www.mineaction.org/sites/default/files/publications/mine_action_strategy_mar15.pdf. "ToWalk The Earth In Safety." Accessed June 19, 2017. https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/176689.pdf. "Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) An Overview October 1996." 2017. doi:10.18411/a-2017-023. "Unexploded ordnance and post-conflict communities - cpeo.org." Accessed July 10, 2017. 19 http://www.cpeo.org/pubs/uxo_final_12_8.pdf Page 16 of 17 Research Report

http://www.bing.com/cr?ig=30138f66975042858a6369c2d6e05358&cid=2c291a3e65b269ac16ec10f4 64B46818&rd=1&h=rjH1in6gErJR9Pq97Bx4j0X0KICwqoaecO7IYeB960E&v=1&r=http%3a%2f%2fwww.cpe o.org%2fpubs%2fuxoreport_3_26.pdf&p=devex,5061.1. "Vietnam War Summary-Overview of the Conflict." History on the Net. May 25, 2017. Accessed July 21, 2017. http://www.historyonthenet.com/vietnam-war-summary/. History.com Staff. "World War I History." History.com. 2009. Accessed July 21, 2017. http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/world-war-i-history. History.com Staff. "World War II History." History.com. 2009. Accessed July 25, 2017. http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history. Research Report Page 17 of 17