Western Civilization Final Exam Study Guide Mr. Rinaldi 2009
Chapter 16 Key Points Reformation & Scientific Revolution Luther s core beliefs rejected the authority of priests and the pope and were based on belief in the bible s sole authority, salvation by faith alone, and the priesthood of all believers Luther s 95 theses were meant to reform the Catholic Church. They were widely circulated as a result of the printing press, a technology invented by Gutenberg that also made the bible available to common people in their own language. Protestantism spread throughout Northern Europe due to the influence of Calvin s successes in Geneva, Knox in Scotland and King Henry of England Calvin s doctrine of predestination stated that God knewwhowho would be saved. He also believed that government should be run by Church leaders Germany s 30 Years war stemmed from conflicts between Protestant and Catholic princes. It left Germany s agriculture and economy in devastation. The Reformation ended religious unity in Europe, caused religious wars and persecution in Europe, strengthened royal (or state) power, helped form national identities, and triggered the Counter Reformation. The Catholic Church s Counter Reformation held a Council at Trent which stressed obedience to the Pope and censored, and even destroyed writings it thought opposed Church teaching Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuit order to help the Church oppose the Protestant Reformation via education and missionary work. The Scientific revolution was based on observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs, among them the idea that the Sun revolved around the Earth. Based on their observations of the heavens, Copernicus and Galileo rejected Ptolemy s geocentric theory and offered the heliocentric theory as an alternative. Key terms: Reformation, Protestant, predestination, theocracy, Counter Reformation, Heliocentric Theory Key people/places/events: Thomas Moore, Erasmus, Gutenberg, Luther, Wittenberg, Charles V, Edict of Worms, Protestant Reformation, Henry VIII, Calvin, Knox, Council of Trent, Ignatius Loyola, Peace of Augsburg, g Ptolmey, Galileo
Chapter 18 Key Points England: Tudor Queen & Stuart Kings Queen Elizabeth s challenges included religious conflicts, rivalry from Mary Stuart, King Phillip of Spain s ambitions, and her own financial difficulties She also had conflicts with her own Parliament around religion and finances. Following England s victory over Spain s Armada, Elizabeth s golden age brought a stronger economy (partly fueled by the formation of joint stock companies), a flourishing arts scene (Shakespeare s plays at Burbage s Globe Theater, etc.) and over crowding in London Elizabeth left no heir, and her Stuart successors began to fight with Parliament over taxes, religion, and the king s role, and conflicts between the Church of England and the Puritans The Stuart Kings believed in Divine Right, but Parliament rejected that belief. Their conflicts eventually led to Civil War, and led to the formation of political parties, England s Glorious Revolution, and constitutional limits on Royal power, including habeas corpus. Key thinkers included John Locke and Thomas Hobbes developed new ideas about government but the two men differed on a key point The Right to Rebellion Locke supported it, and believed that government s power came from the people and it should protect people s rights, which included life, liberty, and property, but Hobbes did not. England s Bill of Rights prohibited the monarchs from suspending Parliament s laws, interfering with members of Parliament s free speech, keeping a standing army, or requiring excessive bail In the development of a constitutional monarchy, England relied on old documents such as the Magna Carta, but it also had to experience conflicts between kings and Parliament, civil wars and revolutions first. Key terms Joint stock companies, divine right, habeas corpus, Bill of Rights Key people/places/events: Elizabeth I, Spanish Armada, Globe Theater, Petition of Right, Oliver Cromwell, Habeas Corpus, Whig, Tory, Glorious Revolution
Chapter 19 Key Points Europe in the Age of Absolute Monarchs While England s government evolved into a constitutional monarchy, on the continent, Europe s Kings remained absolute rulers Absolute rulers ruled by divine right, holds unlimited power, expects loyalty from subjects, dominates middle class (which dominates the lower classes), encourages industry and trade, and sets the standards for culture For example, in France, King Louis XIV ruled as the Sun King from his palace at Versailles, making it the center of French culture and politics He relied on a talented Finance Minister, Jean Colbert to implement an economic policy called Mercantilism, whichsupported French industry and limited imports of foreign goods, creating a strong economy and a favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports) After Colbert died, Louis made a mistake that hurt his economy when he revoked the Edict of Nantes which renewed persecution of the Protestants who made up much of the middle class in France Louis also was a poor general, losing many wars to a group of countries that allied themselves to form a balance against France s power. In contrast to Louis (who wanted to be the center of everything) Russia s Peter the Great tried to improve his country by giving more status to women, by aligning Russia s calendar to Europe s, by setting up Russia s first newspaper, and by adopting mercantilism. Some central European kingdoms (e.g., Poland, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire) struggled to survive because of geographic disadvantages, including rolling plains in the north and low southern mountains with few natural a barriers. They also asofailed aedto develop e strong central governments. e Other rulers, like the Prussians, took advantage of some of those weaker kingdoms by building bigger and better armies. Austria tried to expand, but took a more diplomatic approach and expanded its alliances, especially with France. Key Terms: absolutism, mercantilism, exports, imports, balance of trade, balance of power Key people/places/events: Louis XIV, Versailles, Jean Colbert, Peter II, St. Petersburg, Maria Theresa, Silesia, Frederick kii
Chapter 20 Key Points Enlightenment in Europe The age of Enlightenment in the 1700s resulted in new forms of leadership and government Writers known as the Philosophes argued that the scientific method could be applied to political, economic and social problems. They believed in reason, nature, happiness, progress and liberty. Many philosophes, including Voltaire and Diderot gathered in the salons of Paris which became centers of culture and the arts. The philosophes influenced economic thinkers including Adam Smith, who argued that a free market economy would produce the greatest wealth. He believed in the principle of laissez faire economics, in which the government played little or no regulatory role, and in the laws of self interest, competition, supply and demand. Montesquieu believed that government power should be divided among legislative, executive and judicial branches. Rousseau believed that legitimate government ruled by the consent of the ruled, that people, not monarchs were sovereign, and that liberty and justice could only thrive when the people s will was supreme While the philosophes did not rebel against absolutism, the believed that rulers should rule as enlightened despots using their power for the good of their people. Peter the Great, Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia were examples of enlightened despots. Britain s Glorious Revolution produced a government that was more democratic and enlightened than many in Europe, but fell short of a true democracy because the country s upper classes ran the government and suffrage was limited to land owning males. Britain s parliament evolved to include a Prime Minister and Cabinet which effectively became the center of power within government Key Terms: Philosophe, Enlightenment, Salon, market economy, separation of powers, enlightened despot, constitutional monarchy, cabinet, prime minister Key people/places/events: Newton, Voltaire, Diderot, Adam Smith, laissez faire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Frederick II, Catherine II
Chapter 21 Key Points The French Revolution & Napoleon The seeds of revolution in France included Enlightenment philosophy, the American revolution, social injustices of the Old Regime and France s economic crisis (caused by its support of the American Revolution) The Old Regime s 3 social classes, or estates included the 1 st Estate or Church; the 2 nd Estate or nobility; and the 3 rd Estate or Middle class (Bourgeoisie), workers, peasants Nearly in bankruptcy, France s King Louis XVI called a meeting of the 3 estates called The Estates General. Hoping for reform, the 3 rd estate formed France s National Assembly, kicking off the revolution. The revolution s main goals were expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and included liberty, equality and fraternity Concerns about the monarchy s potential for restoring itself to power led one radical, Robespierre, to launch the Reign of Terror France had several governments during the revolution, none of which were particularly strong or durable leaving an opening for a strong leader, Napoleon, to tk take over. Domestically, he implemented economic, social, and legal reforms, and restored religious order. In international affairs, he tried to spread the revolution (and his own rule) over all of Europe, but he overreached when he attacked Russia. Following that disaster, he suffered defeat at the hands of the Grand Alliance led by Britain at the Battle of Waterloo Key Terms: estate, radical Key people/places/events: Louis XVI, Bastille, Estates General, Robespierre, Napoleon, Waterloo
Chapter 22 Key Points The Industrial Revolution Dramatic changes in technology in Western Europe roughly between 1700 1850 brought about the Industrial Revolution. Britain s abundant natural resources, favorable geography, stable political environment, strong banking system, and a favorable intellectual climate for new ideas gave it an advantage during this period Capitalists and entrepreneurs combined new technologies to create wealth using the principles outlined by AdamSmith Smith, who believed that a free market without government interference would create the greatest wealth. With rapid economic growth, social problems emerged, especially among lower class workers who crowded into the fast growing urban (city) areas that developed around factories, mines and other industries, but laissez faire capitalists didn t want government interference in their businesses Socialist reformers believed that government should have a role in regulation, but they were not generally successful in creating true reform In response to neglect and lack of safety, some workers formed labor unions to attempt to improve their working conditions and economic status. Other reformers proposed more radical ideas, among them Karl Marx, who believed in a Communist Revolution that would put workers in charge, and who hated the fact those workers were exploited under capitalism Key Terms: Industrial revolution, entrepreneur, unions Key people/places/events: Karl Marx, Adam Smith
Chapter 23 Key Points Restoration, Romanticism, Revolution Torn by the Napoleonic Wars, Europe s leaders sought peace, largely by attempting to restore the old, pre Napoleonic regimes, limiting France s ability to be an aggressor (but not punishing it too severely) and by maintaining a balance of power. Conservative forces at the Congress of Vienna, led by Austria s Metternich, argued that the French Revolution had been entirely harmful and believed in protecting existing (absolutist) forms of government Liberals argued that the French Revolution had resulted in some goodreforms reforms, and believed in giving more power to elected Parliaments Radicals favored drastic change and, if necessary, violence Nationalism emerged as a significant force. People who shared similar traditions, history and language, who lived in the same geographic area, and who united under a common government often desired their independence from the old empires, putting stress on the balance of power achieved at the Congress of Vienna Romanticism s greatest contribution to fuel nationalism was a rejection of reason in favor of emotion. It also believed in celebrating nature, glorification of the past, and individualism Key Terms: conservative, liberal, radical, Romanticism Key people/places/events: / Congress of Vienna, Metternich
Chapter 24 Key Points Economic Expansion & Nationalism Industrialism stimulated economic expansion and, combined with Nationalism, drove imperialism in which manyeuropean countries developed overseas colonies. New technologies such as the telegraph and railroads helped foster the growth of trade as did new organizations called corporations which were able to raise capital (money) they needed for large projects by selling stock to the public. Emigration also contributed to economic growth, as people moved to locations where businesses were creating new jobs. Socialist reformers believed that government should have a role in regulation, but they were not generally successful in creating true reform Other reformers proposed more radical ideas, among them Karl Marx, who believed in a Communist Revolution that would put workers (the proletariat) in charge, and who hated the fact thoseworkers were exploited under capitalism Italy s Cavour and Germany s Bismarck, attempted to unify diverse groups through a set of principles called Realpolitik, which combined the use of military force with diplomacy Italy became a constitutional monarchy under Cavour and Garibaldi s leadership, while Bismarck expanded Prussian rule, largely by a series of military actions which enraged the French. The rise of Italy and Germany, along with a weakening of Austria and France destroyed the balance of power, setting the stage for the first World War Key Terms: stock, corporation, emigration, socialism, proletariat, scientific socialism (Communism), realpolitik Key people/places/events: p / Marx, Cavour, Bismarck
Chapter 26 Key Points The Turn of the Century New inventions including the blast furnace, the dynamo, the wireless (radio), the tl telephone, gas engines, assembly lines, etc., further accelerated economic growth and competition. New scientific ideas improved health and understanding of human and animal biology sometimes, as with Darwin s theory of evolution, causing controversy and conflict in scientific circles as well as in the broader society when they were applied to politics and economics Women sought and eventually won the right to vote (suffrage), and began to take on more visible roles in society. Key terms: assembly line, social Darwinism, suffrage Key people/places/events: l/l / Bessemer, Edison, Marconi, BllF Bell, Ford, Pasteur, Darwin, Pankhurst
Chapter 27 Key Points World War 1 In the late 1800s nationalism threatened world peace. Otto von Bismarck of Germany had united Germany using the strength of his military, but later turned to diplomacy and alliances because he was concerned that war, particularly a multi front war, would shatter his empire Kaiser William II forced Bismarck from office partly because of that shift, and later destabilized Europe by letting Germany s treaty of friendship with Russia expire, by threatening English and French colonies, and by starting a naval arms race In the Balkans, nationalist movements threatened both the Ottoman Empire and Austria Hungary. When the war started, Germany faced a two front war and extended supply and communication lines WWI introduced the concept of Total War in which all male civilians were subject to the military draft, women replaced men in factories, and governments used propaganda to promote particular points of view. After a long and difficult war, Germany was defeated by the Allies and was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which, among other punishments, forced Germany to pay reparations, reduce the size of its army, and admit full responsibility for causing the war. Key Terms: militarism, mobilize, neutrality, total war, armistice, reparations Key people/places/events: Bismarck, Triple Alliance, Triple Entente, Franz Ferdinand, Treaty of Versailles
Chapter 28 Key Points Russia in Revolution More than 90% of Russia s population was involved with agriculture and 80% were serfs. Efforts to reform and modernize Russia, and to eliminate i serfdom came and went during much of the 1800s, but failed when Russia s Czars turned to autocratic rule. The reform efforts were punctuated by periods of repression and rebellion. Nicholas II the last Czar, made several reforms, including setting up a Duma, or parliament, but the reforms came too late. Social Democrats were a radical reform group seeking revolutionary change. Led by Lenin, the Bolshevik faction of the Social Democrats seized control of the government after Nicholas II abdicated. Lenin and other Bolsheviks believed that the replacement of bourgeois by the proletariat state could not be possible without violent revolution. Following the success of the revolution Russia became the USSR and the Bolsheviks renamed themselves the Communist party. When Lenin passed away, Stalin became Russia ss dictator, and set up a totalitarian state. Using 5 year plans, collectivization of farms and control of all culture, he modernized Russia using a command economy but at the cost of millions of Russian lives. Key terms: autocrat, autocracy, command economy, totalitarian Key people/places/events: Nicholas II, Stalin, Lenin, 5 Year Plan
Chapter 30 Key Points Years between the Wars The global effects of the Great Depression, high inflation, severe unemployment and fear of communism in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s contributed to the rise of authoritarian Fascist governments in Italy, Germany and Spain. Fascism (and Nazism) were opposed to Communism, but shared a common approach to their opponents anyone who disagreed was suppressed or opporessed Adolph Hitler s vision for Germany included condemnation of the Weimar Republic which had left Germany weakened, an Aryan Master Race which would rule, and extreme Anti Semitism. The League of Nations was too weak to deal with armed aggression from the Fascists Encouraged by an ineffective foreign response, Germany sent troops into the Rhineland, an area supposed to be left unfortified (according the Treaty of Versailles) and eventually annexed Austria and part of Czechoslovakia An ineffective policy of appeasement from France and Britain only encouraged Hitler to take more of Czechoslovakia and invade Poland, starting WWII. Key terms: depression, fascism, authoritarianism, Nazism, appeasement Key people/places/events: Mussolini, Hitler, Franco, AxisPowers, Allies
Chapter 31 Key Points World War II Leading up to the war, Hitler and Germany signed a non aggression pact in 1939 that divided Poland and other parts of Europe between them. Discontent about the Treaty of Versailles, German, Italian and Japanese expansion, and failure of the appeasement policy all contributed to the war WWII was actually two great wars fought simultaneously: The Allies and Axis powers fought in Europe and in the Pacific. More than 40 million people, including civilians died. At the outbreak of the war, the Axis powers had strong economies prepared for war, while the Allies were generallyunprepared to fight For example, France s Maginot Line was an elaborate, but ineffective line of defense against German blitzkreig (lightning war) attacks. While the Axis powers dominated Europe s continent, England managed to resist German air power during the Battle of Britain and prevented an invasion. His decision to break his pact with Stalin opened a 2 nd front in the war in Europe and Hitler found himself repeating Napoleon s mistakes, suffering huge losses as his forces turned on the USSR Japan s 1939 invasion of China was followed by expansion into SE Asia, and ultimately by an attack on the US Fleet at Pearl Harbor. That attack brought the US into the war on the side of Britain and the USSR against the Axis powers of Italy, Germany and Japan. German defeats in North Africa and USSR began the changing tide of the war in Europe. US naval victories helped turn the tide in the Pacific. Key terms: nonaggression pact, blitzkreig, genocide, Holocaust, concentration camp Key people/places/events: Winston Churchill, Hitler, Mussolini, Battle of Stalingrad, D Day, final solution