Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Human Rights, Terrorism and Counter-terrorism Fact Sheet No. 32
NOTE The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Material contained in this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted, provided credit is given and a copy of the publication containing the reprinted material is sent to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Palais des Nations, 8-14 avenue de la Paix, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland. ii
CONTENTS Introduction.... 1 Page III.. HUMAN.RIGHTS.AND.TERRORISM.... 3 I. A.. What.are.human.rights?.... 3. B.. What.is.terrorism?.... 5. C.. The.impact.of.terrorism.on.human.rights... 7. D.. Accountability.and.the.human.rights.of.victims... 9. E.. Terrorism.and.other.aspects.of.international.law... 11 III.. HUMAN.RIGHTS.AND.COUNTER-TERRORISM... 19.. A.. The.promotion.and.protection.of.human.rights.while... countering..terrorism.... 19.. B.. The.flexibility.of.human.rights.law.... 22 III.. SPECIFIC.HUMAN.RIGHTS.CHALLENGES.IN.THE.CONTEXT.OF.. TERRORISM.AND.COUNTER-TERRORISM.... 30. A.. The.right.to.life.... 30. B.. Challenges.to.the.absolute.prohibition.against.torture.... 32. C.. Transfer.of.individuals.suspected.of.terrorist.activity.... 33. D.. Liberty.and.security.of.the.person.... 36. E.. Profiling.and.the.principle.of.non-discrimination.... 37. F.. Due.process.and.the.right.to.a.fair.trial.... 38. G.. The.principle.of.legality.and.the.definition.of.terrorism.... 39. H.. Freedom.of.expression.and.the.prohibition.of.incitement... to.terrorism.... 41. I.. Freedom.of.association.... 43. J.. Surveillance,.data.protection.and.the.right.to.privacy.... 45. K.. Economic,.social.and.cultural.rights.... 46 Annex:.United.Nations.action.to.counter.terrorism.... 57 iii
The promotion and protection of human rights for all and the rule of law is essential to all components of the Strategy, recognizing that effective counter-terrorism measures and the promotion of human rights are not conflicting goals, but complementary and mutually reinforcing United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (General Assembly resolution 60/288, annex) iv
INTROdUCTION The human cost of terrorism has been felt in virtually every corner of the globe. The United Nations family has itself suffered tragic human loss as a result of violent terrorist acts. The attack on its offices in Baghdad on 19 August 2003 claimed the lives of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, Sergio Vieira de Mello, and 21 other men and women, and injured over 150 others, some very seriously. Terrorism clearly has a very real and direct impact on human rights, with devastating consequences for the enjoyment of the right to life, liberty and physical integrity of victims. In addition to these individual costs, terrorism can destabilize Governments, undermine civil society, jeopardize peace and security, and threaten social and economic development. All of these also have a real impact on the enjoyment of human rights. Security of the individual is a basic human right and the protection of individuals is, accordingly, a fundamental obligation of Government. States therefore have an obligation to ensure the human rights of their nationals and others by taking positive measures to protect them against the threat of terrorist acts and bringing the perpetrators of such acts to justice. In recent years, however, the measures adopted by States to counter terrorism have themselves often posed serious challenges to human rights and the rule of law. Some States have engaged in torture and other ill-treatment to counter terrorism, while the legal and practical safeguards available to prevent torture, such as regular and independent monitoring of detention centres, have often been disregarded. Other States have returned persons suspected of engaging in terrorist activities to countries where they face a real risk of torture or other serious human rights abuse, thereby violating the international legal obligation of non-refoulement. The independence of the judiciary has been undermined, in some places, while the use of exceptional courts to try civilians has had an impact on the effectiveness of regular court systems. Repressive measures have been used to stifle the voices of human rights defenders, journalists, minorities, indigenous groups and civil society. Resources normally allocated to social programmes and development assistance have been diverted to the security sector, affecting the economic, social and cultural rights of many. These practices, particularly when taken together, have a corrosive effect on the rule of law, good governance and human rights. They are also counterproductive to national and international efforts to combat terrorism. 1
Respect for human rights and the rule of law must be the bedrock of the global fight against terrorism. This requires the development of national counter-terrorism strategies that seek to prevent acts of terrorism, prosecute those responsible for such criminal acts, and promote and protect human rights and the rule of law. It implies measures to address the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism, including the lack of rule of law and violations of human rights, ethnic, national and religious discrimination, political exclusion, and socio-economic marginalization; to foster the active participation and leadership of civil society; to condemn human rights violations, prohibit them in national law, promptly investigate and prosecute them, and prevent them; and to give due attention to the rights of victims of human rights violations, for instance through restitution and compensation. This Fact Sheet has been prepared with the aim of strengthening understanding of the complex and multifaceted relationship between human rights and terrorism. It identifies some of the critical human rights issues raised in the context of terrorism and highlights the relevant human rights principles and standards which must be respected at all times and in particular in the context of counter-terrorism. It is addressed to State authorities, national and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), national human rights institutions, legal practitioners and individuals concerned with ensuring the protection and promotion of human rights in the context of terrorism and counterterrorism. Specifically, the Fact Sheet is intended to: Raise awareness of the impact of terrorism and counter-terrorism on the enjoyment of all human rights; Provide a practical tool for practitioners dealing with terrorism, counter-terrorism measures and human rights; Provide guidance on ensuring compliance with human rights when countering terrorism; Illustrate specific human rights challenges in countering terrorism. 2
I. HUMAN RIGHTS ANd TERRORISM This chapter sets out the human rights framework before examining the impact that terrorism has on human rights. It then addresses the relationship between terrorism, human rights and other relevant international legal provisions. A. What are human rights? 1. The nature of human rights Human rights are universal values and legal guarantees that protect individuals and groups against actions and omissions primarily by State agents that interfere with fundamental freedoms, entitlements and human dignity. The full spectrum of human rights involves respect for, and protection and fulfilment of, civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights, as well as the right to development. Human rights are universal in other words, they belong inherently to all human beings and are interdependent and indivisible. 1 2. International human rights law International human rights law is reflected in a number of core international human rights treaties and in customary international law. These treaties include in particular the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols. Other core universal human rights treaties are the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol; the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and its Optional Protocol; the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its two Optional Protocols; and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. The most recent are the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol, which were all adopted in December 2006. There is a growing body of subject-specific treaties and protocols as well as various regional treaties on the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. 3
International human rights law is not limited to the enumeration of rights within treaties, but also includes rights and freedoms that have become part of customary international law, which means that they bind all States even if they are not party to a particular treaty. Many of the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights are widely regarded to hold this character. The Human Rights Committee has similarly observed, in its general comments N 24 (1994) and N 29 (2001), that some rights in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights reflect norms of customary international law. Furthermore, some rights are recognized as having a special status as norms of jus cogens (peremptory norms of customary international law), which means that there are no circumstances whatsoever in which derogation from them is permissible. The prohibitions of torture, slavery, genocide, racial discrimination and crimes against humanity, and the right to self-determination are widely recognized as peremptory norms, as reflected in the International Law Commission s articles on State responsibility. The International Law Commission also lists the basic rules of international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflict as examples of peremptory norms. 2 Similarly, the Human Rights Committee has referred to arbitrary deprivation of life, torture and inhuman and degrading treatment, hostage-taking, collective punishment, arbitrary deprivation of liberty, and violations of certain due process rights as non-derogable, while the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, in its Statement on racial discrimination and measures to combat terrorism, has confirmed the principle of nondiscrimination as a norm of jus cogens. 3. The nature of States obligations under international human rights law Human rights law obliges States, primarily, to do certain things and prevents them from doing others. States have a duty to respect, protect and fulfil human rights. Respect for human rights primarily involves not interfering with their enjoyment. Protection is focused on taking positive steps to ensure that others do not interfere with the enjoyment of rights. The fulfilment of human rights requires States to adopt appropriate measures, including legislative, judicial, administrative or educative measures, in order to fulfil their legal obligations. A State party may be found responsible for interference by private persons or entities in the enjoyment of human rights if it has failed to exercise due diligence in protecting against such acts. For example, under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, State parties have an obligation to take positive measures to ensure that private persons or entities do no inflict torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment on others within their power. 4
Human rights law also places a responsibility on States to provide effective remedies in the event of violations. 3 Those human rights that are part of customary international law are applicable to all States. 4 In the case of human rights treaties, those States that are party to a particular treaty have obligations under that treaty. There are various mechanisms for enforcing these obligations, including the evaluation by treaty-monitoring bodies of a State s compliance with certain treaties and the ability of individuals to complain about the violation of their rights to international bodies. Moreover, and particularly relevant to a number of human rights challenges in countering terrorism, all Members of the United Nations are obliged to take joint and separate action in cooperation with the United Nations for the achievement of the purposes set out in Article 55 of its Charter, including universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. A key question is the territorial reach of a State s international human rights obligations. The nature of the general legal obligation of States parties in this respect is addressed in article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. As confirmed by the Human Rights Committee in its general comment N 31 (2004), this obligation on States to ensure Covenant rights to all persons within their territory and subject to their jurisdiction means that a State party must ensure such rights to anyone within its power or effective control, even if not situated within its territory. Furthermore, the enjoyment of international human rights is not limited to the citizens of States parties but must be available to all individuals, regardless of nationality or statelessness, such as asylum-seekers and refugees. In an advisory opinion, the International Court of Justice has, similarly, concluded that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is applicable in respect of acts done by a State in the exercise of its jurisdiction outside its own territory. It reached the same conclusion with regard to the applicability of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. 5 B. What is terrorism? Terrorism is commonly understood to refer to acts of violence that target civilians in the pursuit of political or ideological aims. In legal terms, although the international community has yet to adopt a comprehensive definition of terrorism, existing declarations, resolutions and universal sectoral treaties relating to specific aspects of it define certain acts and core elements. In 1994, the General Assembly s Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, set out in its resolution 49/60, stated 5
that terrorism includes criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes and that such acts are in any circumstances unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other nature that may be invoked to justify them. Ten years later, the Security Council, in its resolution 1566 (2004), referred to criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a Government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act. Later that year, the Secretary-General s High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change described terrorism as any action that is intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or noncombatants, when the purpose of such an act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a Government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act and identified a number of key elements, with further reference to the definitions contained in the 1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and Security Council resolution 1566 (2004). 6 The General Assembly is currently working towards the adoption of a comprehensive convention against terrorism, which would complement the existing sectoral anti-terrorism conventions. Its draft article 2 contains a definition of terrorism which includes unlawfully and intentionally causing, attempting or threatening to cause: (a) death or serious bodily injury to any person; or (b) serious damage to public or private property, including a place of public use, a State or government facility, a public transportation system, an infrastructure facility or the environment; or (c) damage to property, places, facilities, or systems, resulting or likely to result in major economic loss, when the purpose of the conduct, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a Government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act. The draft article further defines as an offence participating as an accomplice, organizing or directing others, or contributing to the commission of such offences by a group of persons acting with a common purpose. While Member States have agreed on many provisions of the draft comprehensive convention, diverging views on whether or not national liberation movements should be excluded from its scope of application have impeded consensus on the adoption of the full text. Negotiations 6
continue. Many States define terrorism in national law in ways that draw to differing degrees on these elements. Specific challenges related to the definition of terrorism and the principle of legality are addressed in further detail in chapter III, section G. C. The impact of terrorism on human rights Terrorism aims at the very destruction of human rights, democracy and the rule of law. It attacks the values that lie at the heart of the Charter of the United Nations and other international instruments: respect for human rights; the rule of law; rules governing armed conflict and the protection of civilians; tolerance among peoples and nations; and the peaceful resolution of conflict. Terrorism has a direct impact on the enjoyment of a number of human rights, in particular the rights to life, liberty and physical integrity. Terrorist acts can destabilize Governments, undermine civil society, jeopardize peace and security, threaten social and economic development, and may especially negatively affect certain groups. All of these have a direct impact on the enjoyment of fundamental human rights. The destructive impact of terrorism on human rights and security has been recognized at the highest level of the United Nations, notably by the Security Council, the General Assembly, the former Commission on Human Rights and the new Human Rights Council. 7 Specifically, Member States have set out that terrorism: Threatens the dignity and security of human beings everywhere, endangers or takes innocent lives, creates an environment that destroys the freedom from fear of the people, jeopardizes fundamental freedoms, and aims at the destruction of human rights; Has an adverse effect on the establishment of the rule of law, undermines pluralistic civil society, aims at the destruction of the democratic bases of society, and destabilizes legitimately constituted Governments; Has links with transnational organized crime, drug trafficking, money-laundering and trafficking in arms, as well as illegal transfers of nuclear, chemical and biological materials, and is linked to the consequent commission of serious crimes such as murder, extortion, kidnapping, assault, hostage-taking and robbery; 7
Has adverse consequences for the economic and social development of States, jeopardizes friendly relations among States, and has a pernicious impact on relations of cooperation among States, including cooperation for development; and Threatens the territorial integrity and security of States, constitutes a grave violation of the purpose and principles of the United Nations, is a threat to international peace and security, and must be suppressed as an essential element for the maintenance of international peace and security. International and regional human rights law makes clear that States have both a right and a duty to protect individuals under their jurisdiction from terrorist attacks. This stems from the general duty of States to protect individuals under their jurisdiction against interference in the enjoyment of human rights. More specifically, this duty is recognized as part of States obligations to ensure respect for the right to life and the right to security. The right to life, which is protected under international and regional human rights treaties, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, has been described as the supreme right 8 because without its effective guarantee, all other human rights would be without meaning. 9 As such, there is an obligation on the part of the State to protect the right to life of every person within its territory 10 and no derogation from this right is permitted, even in times of public emergency. The protection of the right to life includes an obligation on States to take all appropriate and necessary steps to safeguard the lives of those within their jurisdiction. As part of this obligation, States must put in place effective criminal justice and law enforcement systems, such as measures to deter the commission of offences and investigate violations where they occur; ensure that those suspected of criminal acts are prosecuted; provide victims with effective remedies; and take other necessary steps to prevent a recurrence of violations. 11 In addition, international and regional human rights law has recognized that, in specific circumstances, States have a positive obligation to take preventive operational measures to protect an individual or individuals whose life is known or suspected to be at risk from the criminal acts of another individual, 12 which certainly includes terrorists. Also important to highlight is the obligation on States to ensure the personal security of individuals under their jurisdiction where a threat is known or suspected to exist. 13 This, of course, includes terrorist threats. In order to fulfil their obligations under human rights law to protect the life and security of individuals under their jurisdiction, States have a right 8
and a duty to take effective counter-terrorism measures, to prevent and deter future terrorist attacks and to prosecute those that are responsible for carrying out such acts. At the same time, the countering of terrorism poses grave challenges to the protection and promotion of human rights. As part of States duty to protect individuals within their jurisdiction, all measures taken to combat terrorism must themselves also comply with States obligations under international law, in particular international human rights, refugee and humanitarian law. d. Accountability and the human rights of victims From a human rights perspective, support for victims in the context of terrorism is a paramount concern. While efforts immediately following the events of 11 September 2001 largely failed to give due consideration to the human rights of victims, there is increasing recognition of the need for the international community to take fully into account the human rights of all victims of terrorism. In the 2005 World Summit Outcome (General Assembly resolution 60/1), for example, Member States stressed the importance of assisting victims of terrorism and of providing them and their families with support to cope with their loss and their grief. Similarly, the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy reflects the pledge by Member States to promote international solidarity in support of victims and foster the involvement of civil society in a global campaign against terrorism and for its condemnation. In addressing the needs of victims of terrorism, consideration must be given to the distinction between victims of crime, on the one hand, and victims of human rights violations, on the other. While this distinction is not always clear-cut, it is important to note that, in most cases, terrorist-related acts will be addressed as criminal offences committed by individuals and a State will not, in principle, be responsible for the illegal conduct itself. Acts constituting human rights violations are committed primarily by organs or persons in the name of, or on behalf of, the State. In some circumstances, however, the State may be responsible for the acts of private individuals that may constitute a violation of international human rights law. While a comprehensive analysis of the needs of victims of crime and human rights violations in the context of terrorism, and of responses to those needs, is beyond the scope of this publication, several basic principles should be underscored. In particular, international and regional standards with regard to victims of crime and victims of gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international 9
humanitarian law may be instructive in addressing the needs of victims of terrorism. 14 Certain provisions of the universal treaties relating to specific aspects of terrorism are also relevant to addressing the situations of victims of terrorism. According to the Declaration on Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, set out in General Assembly resolution 40/34, victims include persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member States, including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power. Importantly, the Declaration notes that an individual may be considered a victim regardless of whether the perpetrator is identified, apprehended, prosecuted or convicted and regardless of the familial relationship between the perpetrator and the victim. The term victim may include the immediate family or dependants of the direct victim, as well as persons who have suffered harm in intervening to assist victims in distress or to prevent victimization. The Declaration further outlines the minimum standards for the treatment of these victims according to several basic principles of justice. These require that victims should: Be treated with compassion and respect for their dignity; Be informed about, and have their views and concerns presented at, legal proceedings; Be entitled to proper assistance throughout the legal process; Be protected against intimidation and retaliation; Have their privacy protected; Be offered the opportunity to participate in informal mechanisms for the resolution of disputes, including mediation; Enjoy restitution and compensation, as appropriate; and Receive the necessary material, medical, psychological and social assistance. The Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights 10
Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, adopted in 2005 by the General Assembly in its resolution 60/147, underscore the need for victims to be treated with humanity and respect for their dignity and human rights, and emphasize that appropriate measures should be taken to ensure their safety, physical and psychological well-being and privacy, as well as those of their families. The Basic Principles and Guidelines also outline remedies to be made available to victims of violations of international human rights and humanitarian law. These include the victim s right to equal and effective access to justice, effective and prompt reparation for harm suffered, and access to relevant information concerning the violations and reparation mechanisms. More specifically, they outline certain obligations on States to provide reparation to victims for acts or omissions which can be attributed to the State and constitute gross violations of international human rights law or serious violations of international humanitarian law, and to establish national programmes for reparation and other assistance to victims, if the parties liable for the harm suffered are unable or unwilling to meet their obligations. E. Terrorism and other aspects of international law 1. Terrorism and international humanitarian law International humanitarian law contains a set of rules on the protection of persons in armed conflict, as that term is understood in the relevant treaties, as well as on the conduct of hostilities. These rules are reflected in a number of treaties, including the four Geneva Conventions and their two Additional Protocols, as well as a number of other international instruments aimed at reducing human suffering in armed conflict. Many of their provisions are now also recognized as customary international law. 15 There is no explicit definition of terrorism as such in international humanitarian law. However, international humanitarian law prohibits many acts committed in armed conflict which would be considered terrorist acts if they were committed in times of peace. 16 For example, deliberate acts of violence against civilians and civilian objects constitute war crimes under international law, for which individuals may be prosecuted. This rule derives from the fundamental principle of international humanitarian law related to the protection of civilians in armed conflict, namely the principle of distinction. According to this principle, all parties to a conflict must at all times distinguish between 11
civilians and combatants. In essence, this means that attacks may be directed only at military objectives, i.e., those objects which by their nature, location, purpose or use make an effective contribution to military action and whose total or partial destruction, capture or neutralization, in the circumstances applicable at the time, offers a definite military advantage. Civilians lose their protection as civilians for such time as they participate directly in the hostilities. Furthermore, indiscriminate attacks are strictly prohibited according to international humanitarian law. This includes attacks that are not directed at a specific military objective, employ a method or means of combat which cannot be directed at a specific military objective, or employ a method or means of combat the effects of which cannot be limited as required by international humanitarian law, and consequently are of a nature to strike military objectives and civilians or civilian objects without distinction. Indiscriminate attacks include disproportionate attacks, which are also prohibited. International humanitarian law also specifically prohibits measures of terrorism or acts of terrorism. These prohibitions aim to highlight individual criminal accountability and protect against collective punishment and all measures of intimidation or of terrorism. 17 Furthermore, acts or threats of violence the primary purpose of which is to spread terror among the civilian population are also strictly prohibited under international humanitarian law. 18 According to the International Committee of the Red Cross, while even a lawful attack on a military objective may spread fear among civilians, these provisions, related to the conduct of hostilities, seek to prohibit attacks that specifically aim to terrorize civilians, for example campaigns of shelling or sniping of civilians in urban areas. 19 It is important to note that, in addition to international humanitarian law, international human rights law continues to apply during armed conflict, subject only to certain permissible limitations in accordance with strict requirements contained in international human rights treaties. In essence, the difference between the two bodies of law is that, whilst human rights law protects the individual at all times, international humanitarian law applies only in situations of armed conflict. In this regard, the Human Rights Committee has stated, in its general comment N 31, that: [The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights] applies also in situations of armed conflict to which the rules of international humanitarian law are applicable. While, in respect of certain Covenant rights, more specific rules of international humanitarian law may be 12
specially relevant for the purposes of the interpretation of Covenant rights, both spheres of law are complementary, not mutually exclusive. The International Court of Justice has also affirmed the applicability of the Covenant during armed conflicts, stating that the right not arbitrarily to be deprived of one s life applies also in hostilities. The test of what is an arbitrary deprivation of life, however, then falls to be determined by the applicable lex specialis, namely, the law applicable in armed conflict. 20 In its advisory opinion on the Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, the Court further posited the applicability of human rights law in times of armed conflict, stating the protection offered by human rights conventions does not cease in case of armed conflict, save through the effect of provisions for derogation of the kind to be found in article 4 of the [International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]. 21 Most recently, the Court applied both human rights law and international humanitarian law to the armed conflict between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda. 22 Acts of terrorism which are committed outside of armed conflict generally constitute crimes under domestic and, depending on the circumstances, international criminal law and thus should be regulated through the enforcement of domestic and international criminal law. 2. Terrorism and international criminal law Over the course of four decades, the international community, under the auspices of the United Nations, has developed 13 conventions relating to the prevention and suppression of terrorism. These so-called sectoral instruments, which address issues ranging from the unlawful seizure of aircraft and the taking of hostages to the suppression of terrorist bombings, contribute to the global legal regime against terrorism and provide a framework for international cooperation. They require States to take specific measures to prevent the commission of terrorist acts and prohibit terrorist-related offences, including by obliging States parties to criminalize specific conduct, establish certain jurisdictional criteria (including the well-known principle of aut dedere aut judicare or extradite or prosecute ), and provide a legal basis for cooperation on extradition and legal assistance. Most of these treaties relating to specific aspects of terrorism define specified acts as offences and require States to criminalize them. They cover offences linked to the financing of terrorism, offences based on the victim s status (such as hostage-taking and crimes against internationally 13
protected persons), offences linked to civil aviation, offences linked to ships and fixed platforms, and offences linked to dangerous materials. 23 According to the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, for example, terrorism includes any act intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a civilian, or to any other person not taking an active part in the hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, when the purpose of such act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a Government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act. It requires the penalization of specific offences related to the financing of terrorism thus defined. The Security Council has recognized the ratification and effective implementation of the universal anti-terrorism instruments as a top priority. On 28 September 2001, acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, it adopted resolution 1373 (2001), stating explicitly that every act of terrorism constitutes a threat to international peace and security and that the acts, methods, and practices of terrorism are contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. The resolution also requires all States to criminalize terrorist acts; to penalize acts of support for or in preparation of terrorist offences; to criminalize the financing of terrorism; to depoliticize terrorist offences; to freeze funds of persons who commit or attempt to commit terrorist acts; and to strengthen international cooperation in criminal matters. Depending on the context in which terrorist acts occur, they may also constitute crimes under international law. During the drawing-up of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, several delegations argued for the inclusion of terrorism in the jurisdiction of the Court as a separate crime. The majority of States disagreed, however, precisely because of the issue of the definition. The Final Act of the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of the International Criminal Court, adopted in Rome on 17 July 1998, recommended that a Review Conference of the Rome Statute, which may take place seven years following the entry into force of the Statute, namely in 2009, should consider several crimes, including terrorism, with a view to arriving at an acceptable definition and their inclusion in the list of crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court. Although the Rome Statute does not include terrorism as a separate crime, it does contain various offences which may include terrorist conduct, depending on the particular facts and circumstances of each case. A terrorist act might constitute a crime against humanity, an offence defined under article 7 of the Rome Statute to include certain acts 14
committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack. 24 Moreover, acts such as deliberate or indiscriminate attacks against civilians or hostagetaking might fall under war crimes, as defined under article 8 of the Rome Statute. The international criminal law provisions against terrorism have also been addressed in practice by international tribunals. In 2003, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted, for the first time, an individual for his responsibility for the war crime of terror against the civilian population in Sarajevo, under article 3 of its statute. The Court concluded that the crime of terror against the civilian population was constituted of elements common to other war crimes, in addition to further elements that it drew from the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism. 25 3. Terrorism and international refugee law Alongside the general obligations of human rights law, international refugee law is the body of law which provides a specific legal framework for the protection of refugees by defining the term refugee, setting out States obligations to them and establishing standards for their treatment. Aspects of international refugee law also relate to persons seeking asylum. The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees are the two universal instruments in international refugee law. With regard to terrorism and measures taken to counter it, both incorporate a system of checks and balances that takes full account of the security interests of States and host communities while protecting the rights of persons who, unlike other categories of foreigners, no longer enjoy the protection of their country of origin. As mentioned above, Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) obliges Member States to take a number of measures to prevent terrorist activities and to criminalize various forms of terrorist actions, as well as measures that assist and promote cooperation among countries including signing up to international counter-terrorism instruments. The resolution also touches on issues related to immigration and refugee status. For example, States are required to prevent the movement of terrorists by implementing effective border controls and to secure the integrity of identity papers and travel documents (para. 2 (g)). States are also called upon to ensure 15
that asylum-seekers that have planned, facilitated or participated in the commission of terrorist acts are not granted refugee status (para. 3 (f)), and that refugee status is not abused by perpetrators, organizers or facilitators of terrorist acts (para. 3 (g)). It should be noted that, with regard to refugee status and asylum, the resolution did not introduce new obligations into international refugee law. The 1951 Convention already has provisions to ensure that international refugee protection is not extended to those who have induced, facilitated or perpetrated terrorist acts. The position of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is that those responsible for committing terrorist acts must not be permitted to manipulate refugee mechanisms in order to find a safe haven or achieve impunity. 26 The framework of international refugee law contains provisions aimed at guarding against abuse and is thus able to respond to possible exploitation of refugee mechanisms by those responsible for terrorist acts. Firstly, refugee status may be granted only to those who fulfil the criteria of the refugee definition contained in article 1A of the 1951 Convention, i.e., those who have a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion. In many cases, persons responsible for terrorist acts may not fear persecution for a reason set out in the 1951 Convention, but may rather be fleeing legitimate prosecution for criminal acts they have committed. Secondly, according to article 1F of the 1951 Convention, persons who would otherwise meet the refugee criteria of article 1A shall be excluded from international refugee protection if there are serious reasons for considering that they have committed a war crime, a crime against humanity, a serious non-political crime outside the country of refuge prior to admission to that country as a refugee, or have been guilty of acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Particularly relevant is article 1F (b), which relates to the commission of a serious non-political crime by an asylum-seeker prior to the person s admission to the country of refuge. Acts which bear the characteristics of terrorism will almost invariably amount to serious non-political crimes. UNHCR has issued guidelines 27 on the application of exclusion clauses under the 1951 Convention, noting, in particular, their exceptional nature and the need for their scrupulous application. 16
While indications of an asylum-seeker s alleged involvement in acts of terrorism would make it necessary to examine the applicability of article 1F of the 1951 Convention, international refugee law requires an assessment of the context and circumstances of the individual case in a fair and efficient procedure before a decision is taken. Any summary rejection of asylum-seekers, including at borders or points of entry, may amount to refoulement, which is prohibited by international refugee and human rights law. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, all persons have the right to seek asylum. Thirdly, persons who have been recognized as refugees, as well as asylumseekers who are awaiting a determination of their claims, are bound to conform to the laws and regulations of their host country, as specified in article 2 of the 1951 Convention. If they do not do so, they may be prosecuted to the full extent of the law. In addition, exceptions to the principle of non-refoulement exist under article 33 (2) of the 1951 Convention. Denial of protection from refoulement and return to the country of origin are foreseen if there are reasonable grounds for regarding a refugee as a danger to the security of the country in which he or she is or if, having been convicted of a particularly serious crime, that person constitutes a danger to the community of the host State. Finally, the 1951 Convention provides for the possibility of expulsion to a third country on national security grounds under article 32. Implementation of either of these articles may be carried out only following a decision taken by a competent authority in accordance with due process of law, including the right to be heard and the right of appeal. It is crucial to emphasize, however, that the application of either limitation contained in articles 32 or 33 (2) of the 1951 Convention is subject to the other human rights obligations of the State, specifically article 3 of the Convention against Torture and article 7 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, whose protection is absolute. If a person has already been granted refugee status under the 1951 Convention, such status may be cancelled if there are grounds for considering that the person should not have been recognized as a refugee in the first place. This is the case where there are indications that, at the time of the initial decision, the applicant did not meet the inclusion criteria of the 1951 Convention, or that an exclusion clause of that Convention should have been applied to him or her. 28 This might include evidence that the person committed terrorist acts. Cancellation of refugee status is in keeping with the object and purpose of the 1951 Convention, if it is 17
established, in proper procedures, that the person did not fall within the refugee definition at the time of recognition. Counter-terrorism and national security measures undertaken by States have also had, in some case, an adverse impact on refugee protection. These include unduly restrictive legislative and administrative measures, lack of access to asylum procedures, and the criminalization of refugees and asylum-seekers, which has negatively affected public perception. 18
II. HUMAN RIGHTS ANd COUNTER- TERRORISM As seen in chapter I, terrorism has a direct impact on the enjoyment of human rights. As such, States have a duty to take effective counterterrorism measures. While the complexity and magnitude of the challenges facing States and others in their efforts to combat terrorism can be significant, international human rights law is flexible enough to address them effectively. This chapter will focus on the relationship between counter-terrorism and human rights, examining more specifically States obligation to ensure that all counter-terrorism measures themselves comply with human rights standards (sect. A) and the flexibility built into human rights law to deal with exceptional circumstances (sect. B). A. The promotion and protection of human rights while countering terrorism Just as terrorism impacts on human rights and the functioning of society, so too can measures adopted by States to counter terrorism. As mentioned above, because terrorism has a serious impact on a range of fundamental human rights, States have not only a right but a duty to take effective counter-terrorism measures. Effective counter-terrorism measures and the protection of human rights are complementary and mutually reinforcing objectives which must be pursued together as part of States duty to protect individuals within their jurisdiction. As referred to in chapter I, section E, the Security Council acted swiftly, following the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001, to strengthen the legal framework for international cooperation and common approaches to the threat of terrorism in such areas as preventing its financing, reducing the risk that terrorists might acquire weapons of mass destruction and improving cross-border information-sharing by law enforcement authorities, as well as establishing a monitoring body, the Counter-Terrorism Committee, to supervise the implementation of these measures. Regional approaches have also been developed in the context of the African Union, the Council of Europe, the European Union, the League of Arab States, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Organization of American States, the Organization of the Islamic Conference, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and other organizations. 19
There has been a proliferation of security and counter-terrorism legislation and policy throughout the world since the adoption of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001), much of which has an impact on the enjoyment of human rights. Most countries, when meeting their obligations to counter terrorism by rushing through legislative and practical measures, have created negative consequences for civil liberties and fundamental human rights. The most relevant human rights concerns which States should take seriously to ensure that any measure taken to combat terrorism complies with their obligations under human rights law will be highlighted in chapter III. The central role of human rights and State obligations when countering terrorism The international community has committed to adopting measures that ensure respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the fundamental basis of the fight against terrorism, through the adoption of the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy by the General Assembly in its resolution 60/288. Member States have resolved to take measures aimed at addressing the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism, including lack of rule of law and violations of human rights, and ensure that any measures taken to counter terrorism comply with their obligations under international law, in particular human rights law, refugee law and international humanitarian law. In 2004, the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change reported that recruitment by international terrorist groups was aided by grievances nurtured by poverty, foreign occupation, and the absence of human rights and democracy. 29 The World Summit Outcome, adopted by the General Assembly in 2005, also considered the question of respect for human rights while countering terrorism and concluded that international cooperation to fight terrorism must be conducted in conformity with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations and relevant international conventions and protocols. The General Assembly and the Commission on Human Rights have emphasized that States must ensure that any measures taken to combat terrorism comply with their obligations under international human rights law, refugee law and international humanitarian law. The Security Council has done the same, starting with the declaration set out in its resolution 1456 (2003), in which the Security Council, meeting at the level of Ministers for Foreign Affairs, stated that States must ensure that 20