hij Teacher Resource Bank GCE Government and Politics Unit Guidance: Unit 3A The Politics of the USA The Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA) is a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales (company number 3644723) and a registered charity (registered charity number 1073334). Registered address: AQA, Devas Street, Manchester M15 6EX. Dr Michael Cresswell, Director General.
AQA Unit Guidance: UNIT 3A The Politics of the USA This A2 unit builds on and extends the knowledge and conceptual understanding developed through the AS units. In all four section of this unit it will be possible for candidates to demonstrate synoptic understanding by referring to similarities and differences between the UK and the USA. (However, there will be NO specifically comparative questions on the paper.) In order to provide a context and background for the study of US politics, it would be helpful for candidates to have an understanding of some of the characteristics of the country. This would include a basic knowledge of key historical events such as the Civil War, waves of immigration, the Great Depression and subsequent New Deal, the Civil Rights movement and the Vietnam war. In addition, some appreciation of the country s geography, the cultural values of the population and the extent of social, ethnic and religious diversity will enhance candidates political understanding. Think of it as like putting in the edges of a jigsaw puzzle before the picture can be put together. Such an approach can also aid understanding of some of the apparent paradoxes of American politics, such as the commitment to liberty and equality in its founding documents and the actual denial of these to substantial sections of its population, or the strongly religious aspects of its politics, despite the constitutional separation of Church and State. Although the detailed study of the formal governmental system forms the substance of Unit 4A, it would be useful to have a basic understanding of this. Such an introductory study may serve to avoid over-simplification of the politics of what is still the most powerful nation on earth, with a governmental system and political culture that is very different from that found in the UK. Understanding can be further increased by paying close attention to political events and issues as they unfold. Such evidence can be used in illustrating arguments in examination answers and will be fully credited. It may also be useful to develop a glossary of the specialised terms and subject-specific vocabulary as used in American politics, so that they can be used with confidence. THE ELECTORAL PROCESS AND DIRECT DEMOCRACY In this section candidates should develop an understanding of the mechanics of the US electoral process, from the invisible primary, through the actual nomination process, the electoral campaign itself (with its media and money dominance) and the Electoral College system. The numerous influences on the outcomes of the process should be noted. This means a close study of the various kinds of primary and caucus systems, using examples of their practical working and noting the main differences in their outcomes. Candidates should be familiar with terms such as front-loading, the invisible primary and super-delegates. They should also understand the reasons why primaries and caucuses have changed in recent years (such as the McGovern Fraser reforms in the Democratic Party ending the dominance of machine politics and party bosses in smoke-filled rooms). Candidates should also understand the debates over the use of primaries and caucuses. The role of the National Nominating Conventions and their formal and informal functions should be evaluated, with evidence and examples, shwing their importance (or lack of) to parties and candidates. Examination candidates should recognise the key factors influencing the conduct of US electoral campaigns, including the influence of both the media and money, with evidence and klm 1
examples taken from recent campaigns. They should also be familiar with the tactical aspects of the campaign, such as the targeting of swing voters in swing states and energising their base of core aligned voters. Candidates should understand the manyfaceted role of the Electoral College, noting also the absence of any fundamental reform in the face of considerable criticism. The presence of direct democracy in some states can build on work covered in AS Unit 1. Candidates should have a clear understanding of initiatives, propositions, referendums and recall elections. Evidence and examples should be given of their specific use in recent elections. Candidates should appreciate the reasons for an increasing use of direct democracy in certain states in recent years. POLITICAL PARTIES In this section candidates should build on the work and concepts covered on political parties at AS level. It will be helpful to have some basic knowledge of the different historical origins and development of the two main US parties. However, there will be no necessity for long historical introductions in candidates answers. There should be consideration of the fact that the two main parties have sometimes been described as being very similar and candidates should recognise reasons for this. However, they should avoid simplistic descriptions of them as identical, and they should recognise the differences between them in terms of ideology, policies and actions. Candidates should also note how the parties appeal to very different groups of voters. Following this, there should be understanding of the factionalised nature of the parties (reflecting the social, ethnic and geographic diversity of the country as well as its federal system of government). Candidates should recognise the two parties as vote-maximising coalitions and appreciate the meaning of the terms big tent and catch all in characterising them. This should lead to an examination of the main cleavage (between liberal and conservative wings) within both parties. In addition, there should be some knowledge of various other groupings or factions within both parties, such as the fiscal and social conservatives in the Republican Party or the impact of the New Democrats in the 1990s under Clinton. However, candidates should also be aware of the more cohesive and coherent ideological positions in recent times, with the Democrats being seen as more liberal and the Republicans more conservative. It should be recognised that these movements have led to an increased polarisation in US politics. The organisational nature of the parties should also be analysed. Candidates should understand why this is often described as weak in comparison with UK parties. They should recognise the effect on party organisation of the federal system and the separation of powers at both federal and state level. Candidates should be conversant with the recent debate over the extent of party decline in the USA as, with the rise of primary selection and candidate and issue-centred campaigns, they have lost organisational functions. This should lead into a consideration of the renewal/resurgence debate. Candidates should understand the nature of the two-party system itself. They should be able to explain the paradox of its enduring strength despite the USA being one of the most diverse and fragmented countries in the world. They should also be aware of the numerous difficulties faced by third parties, which make electoral breakthrough difficult if not impossible. However, candidates should be aware of the impact that certain minor parties and independent candidates have made in particular elections. 2 klm
VOTING BEHAVIOUR Candidates should build on the study of voting behaviour in Unit 1 at AS level. However, because of the huge size of the USA, and its social, economic, racial, ethnic, religious and geographical diversity, plus the large number of elections at different levels, the study of voting behaviour is more complex than in the UK. A good starting point for analysing voting behaviour in the USA would be the nature of partisanship and alignment, in particular looking at political socialisation. This can then lead to a more in-depth consideration of the main variables that affect party identification and voting choice. There should be some analysis of the ideologies and policies that attract different social groups. Candidates should have a knowledge and understanding of the links between socio-economic status, gender, race and ethnicity, religion, age, geographical region and voting behaviour. They should also study the core voters or electoral base of the parties and the differing voting coalitions they are able to construct. This knowledge and analysis should always be backed up by evidence from voting statistics from recent elections. Candidates should also be able to identify key changes that have taken place in voting behaviour from election to election as voters, candidates and issues have changed. They should avoid simplistic responses to questions and should always consider the WHY rather than the HOW. They should also be conscious of the relative importance of the variables affecting voting behaviour. Candidates should recognise the important long-term primacy social factors influencing voting behaviour, but should not neglect the significance of short-term recency factors. The latter include the impact of individual candidates, salient issues and events. The mass media may also have an effect on voting because of the way in which they mediate the issues in the campaign and put across the images of the candidates. Many examples can be gleaned from the last few elections of issues, events and candidate-voting being significant in elections. These may be seen as evidence of a more volatile de-aligned electorate. It is important that candidates are able to confidently use the language of psephology in their answers, using terms such as swing voters, partisanship, volatility, alignment and dealignment and protest voting. There should also be understanding of the propensity of US voters to split their ticket. They should have a clear understanding of what split-ticket voting is and its implications/consequences. These may be on both the electoral outcome and the consequences, such as divided and (usually) gridlocked government. Finally, candidates must consider the reasons why, in what may be regarded as the world s greatest and oldest democracy, significant numbers of US voters fail to turn out. As seen in Unit 1, some of these reasons also apply in the UK. However, in the US context there are many other significant factors that students should be aware of. They should also know of the recent legislation designed to reduce the barriers to voting, such as the 2002 Help America Vote Act. Candidates should be aware of, and be able to use, political language in this area, such as differential abstention, voter fatigue, democratic overload and hapathy. klm 3
PRESSURE GROUPS This section can build on the work covered on UK pressure groups in Unit 1 at AS and some of the political language and concepts used are the same. However, US government and politics provide a very different context for the development and activities of pressure groups. It is probably fair to say that there are more differences than similarities, and candidates should not expect to simply re-hash their UK pressure-group notes. A distinctive definition of US pressure groups is necessary and the key differences between them and political parties should be understood. Candidates should be able to identify and discuss the pluralist theory of pressure groups as well as the contrasting position of the elite theorists. It is also important to consider reasons for the huge growth of pressure groups and pressure-group activity in the USA, particularly since the 1960s. Candidates should have a basic typology of pressure groups in the USA, such as sectional and cause groups, or insiders and outsiders. They should also recognise the wide diversity of political lobbies, representing hundreds of interests, from the environment to the elderly. Candidates should be encouraged to engage in detailed research into some of these (even the more obscure ones) in order to locate examples to illustrate their answers. Candidates should be able to evaluate the numerous factors or variables that can contribute to the success of a pressure group. This will involve examining their resources, their specific aims and objectives, their methods, and their links with the political and electoral system. Public opinion and links to the political parties can also be important. It must be recognised that a lack of these resources will lead to a lack of success, with the less endowed groups having to resort to more outsider methods of action. It is vital, in answers to pressure-group questions, that use is made of specific examples that illustrate the characteristics of the US political system, demonstrating its particular openness to lobbying at both federal and state level. There is also the lobbying of the Supreme Court through the production of Amicus Curiae briefs. A final crucial area of analysis concerns the normative debate over the influence of pressure groups in a representative democracy like the USA. Can their activities be defended as democratic or attacked as undemocratic? There are no right answers to these questions, only debate backed up with convincing arguments and analysis. In answering questions on this, candidates must locate the arguments of both sides of the debate. They should be aware of the checks and balances in the US system, which can prevent pressure groups becoming over-powerful. There should be understanding of the debate over the important issue of finance, including an analysis of the controversial roles of Political Action Committees as fund-raisers for pressure groups and candidates, particularly since the FECA reforms of the 1970s. In addressing this area, candidates should understand political concepts and vocabulary associated with the analysis such as the revolving door, iron triangles and clientelism. 4 klm