A 2006/ 143 Uses and Effects of New Media on Political Communication in the United States of America, Germany, and Egypt von Adel Saleh Tectum Verlag Marburg 2005
Contents FIGURES 11 TABLES 13 INTRODUCTION 14 CHAPTER I: MEDIA AND POLITICAL CAMPAIGNING IN THE CYBERSPACE AGE 21 1. Political Campaigns and Mass Media 21 2. Methods of Communication in Political Campaigns 23 2.1 Interpersonal Communication Types 23 2.2 Mass Communication Types 24 2.2.1 Paid or Controlled Media 24 2.2.2 Non-Paid or Uncontrolled Media 25 3. Changing Communication Technology and the Future of Political Campaign 25 3.1 Political Campaign Definition 26 3.2 Political Campaign Communication Model 26 3.3 Development Types of Political Campaign Communication 27 3.4 New Communication Technologies and Political Campaign 29 4. Internet and Political Communication 30 4.1 The Internet and Political Campaigning 37 4.2 Using the Internet in Electoral Campaigns 38 4.2.1 Information Provision 39 4.2.2 Grassroots Networking 41 4.2.3 Advocating 41 4.2.4 Fundraising 42 4.2.5 Interaction.- 43 4.2.6 Mapping and Targeting 44 5. Internet and Politics in the Communication Research Agenda 45 CHAPTER H: THE INTERNET AS AN ALTERNATIVE CAMPAIGNING MEDIUM: OPPORTUNITD2S AND CHALLENGES 49 1. The Internet and Mass Media 49 1.1 Communication Theoiy Perspective 50 1.1.1 Online Communication in the Context of the Traditional Communication Model... 50 1.1.2 Types of Online Communication 51 1.1.3 Characteristics of Cyberspace Communication System 52 1.2 Hie "Critical Mass" Threshold Perspective: Media Diffusion and Accessibility. 55 1.2.1 Development in Access and Uses of Information Technology 55 1.2.2 Rate of Access and Use of the Internet 56 1.2.2.1 Evaluating Information and Communication Technologies: the U.S., Germany, and Egypt 57 1.2.2.2 Social, Economic, and Technological Aspects of the U.S., Germany, and Egypt 58 1.2.2.3 Operational Readiness and Network Policy in the U.S., Germany and Egypt... 58 1.3 Media Consumption Perspective: The Internet Compared to Classic Media 61 1.3.1 Purposes of Using the Internet as a Mass Medium 62 1.3.2 Media Time Budgets and the Role of the Internet 65 1.3.3 Online Advertising 67 2. The Internet and the Democratic Communication Perspective 69 2.1 The Internet and the Expansion of Democratic Communication 70
2.2 Communication and Empowerment Theory. 71 2.3 The Internet as an Alternative Political Campaigning Medium 72 2.3.1 Alternative Media Theory 73 2.3.2 Is the Internet an Alternative Medium? 73 2.4 Searching for Alternatives: Old Media Challenges are New Media Opportunities 74 2.4.1 Media Control 75 2.4.1.1 Traditional Media and Control 75 2.4.1.2 New Media and Control 78 2.4.2 Media Credibility 79 2.4.2.1 Traditional Media and Credibility 80 2.4.2.2 New Media and Credibility 82 2.4.3 Media and Interactivity 84 2.4.3.1 Traditional Media and Interactivity 85 2.4.3.2 New Media and Interactivity 85 2.4.4 Media and Cost 88 2.4.4.1 Traditional Media and Cost 89 2.4.4.2 New Media and Cost 89 2.5 Challenges of the New Alternative Media Perspective 91 2.5.1 Digital Divide 91 2.5.1.1 Digital Divide in Theory 92 2.5.1.2 Digital Divide in Practice 94 2.5.2 Internet Surveillance 97 2.5.2.1 Surveillance Experiences 99 2.5.3 The Potential of Internet Monopoly 101 2.5.3.1 Forms Related to Access 101 2.5.3.2 Forms Related to Production & Delivery 103 2.5.4 Cyber Attacks 105 2.5.5 Privacy Issues 106 3. Women, Politics, and the Internet: An Ideal Case of the New Media's Opportunities and Challenges Ill 3.1 Women and Politics: Gender Gap as Usual? Ill 3.2 Women's Access and Control of Mainstream Media: Reason or Consequence of Gender Discrimination? 113 3.3 The Internet and Women's Empowerment 114 3.4 Women's Access and Use of ICTs: a Multiple Gender Gap 116 3.5 Women's Political Online Campaigning Initiatives 117 CHAPTER HI: CAMPAIGN STAKEHOLDERS AND THE INTERNET... 121 1. Campaign Stakeholders 121 2. Campaigners and Online Campaigning 122 2. 1 Indicators of Increasing the Role of the Web in Political Campaigning 124 2.2 Developing Campaigning Websites in the U.S., Germany and Egypt 127 2.2.1 Parties'Websites History 127 2.2.2 Levels of Development of the Campaign Websites 128 2.3 Parties' Objectives of Being Online 133 3. Voters and Online Campaigning 136 3.1 Voters and the Importance of Campaigning Websites 139 3.2 Voter's Expectations from Online Campaigns 141 3.3 Voters' Engaging in Online Campaigns 144 3.4 Voters' Trust in Online Campaigns 145 CHAPTER IV: POLITICAL CAMPAIGNING WEBSITES IN GERMANY, THE U.S., AND EGYPT: A CONTENT ANALYSIS STUDY 149
1. Website Analysis: Possibilities and Constraints 149 1.1 Website Evaluation 150 1.1.1 Website Construction Evaluation Guide 150 1.1.2 Political Website Evaluation Guide 153 1.2 Website Research Methodology 154 1.2.1 Website Research Approaches 155 1.2.2 Website Research Techniques 156 1.2.2.1 Content Analysis 156 1.2.2.2 Hyperlink Network Analysis 158 1.2.2.3 Survey 160 1.2.2.4 Experiment 161 1.2.3. Web Analysis Methodology Problems 162 1.2.3.1 Analysis Units 162 1.2.3.2 Concept Definitions or Meanings 163 1.2.3.3 Archives or Getting the Web Materials (Web Repository) 164 1.2.3.4 Data Collection 164 1.2.4 Technology to Overcome the Web Studying Methodological Problems 165 1.2.4.1 Software to Analyze Types of Using the Websites 166 1.2.4.2 Web Archiving Software 167 1.2.4.3 Software to Analyze Structural Aspects 168 1.2.4.4 Software to Analyze the Web Content 169 2. Party & Candidate's Websites in Germany, the U. S., and Egypt 172 2.1 Literature Review 172 2.2 Study Questions and Expectations 176 2.3 Research Method 177 2.3.1 Study Techniques and Coding System 177 2.3.1.1 Web Search 177 2.3.1.2 Content Analysis 177 2.3.2 Sample, Data Collecting, and Coding Procedures 178 2.4 Findings: German Party and Candidate Websites 179 2.4.1 Access and Visibility 179 2.4.1.1 Links to German Party & Candidate Websites 180 2.4.1.2 Party and Candidate Websites Traffic Rank Average 182 2.4.2 German Campaign Websites Function 185 2.4.3 Structure of German Campaign Websites 190 2.4.4 German Websites Communication Style 193 2.5 Findings: American Parties and Candidates' Websites 198 2.5.1 Parties' Online Existence: Access and Visibility 198 2.5.1.1 Links to the American Parties' & Candidates' Websites 198 2.5.1.2 Party and Candidate Websites Traffic Rank Average 199 2.5.2 Functions of U.S. Websites 200 2.5.3 The Structure of U.S. Websites 204 2.5.4 Communication Style of U.S. Websites 206 2.6 Findings: Egyptian Partisan Websites 208 2.6.1 Parties' Online Existence: Access and Visibility 208 2.6.1.1 Links to the Egyptian Parties' Websites 208 2.6.1.2 Parties'Websites Traffic Rank Average 209 2.6.2 Egyptian Websites' Functions 210 2.6.3 The Structure of Egyptian Websites 210 2.6.4 Egyptian Websites' Communication Style 211 3. Similarities & Differences in the Online Campaigning Performance among the Examined Countries 212 3.1 Websites Access and Visibility 214 3.2 Websites Functions 215 3.3 Website Structure 217
3.4 Websites' Communication Style 218 CHAPTER V: THE EFFECTS OF THE INTERNET ON POLITICAL PARTICIPATION 222 1. Alternative Media Effects Perspective 223 2. The Internet and Political Participation 224 2.1 The Internet and Political Participation Theories 225 2.1.1 Positive Effects on Political Participation (Mobilization Theory) 226 2.1.2 Limited or No Effects on Political Participation (Reinforcement Theory) 227 2.1.3 Why Reinforcement Theory Should Be Revisited 228 2.1.3.1 Spread of Internet Access and Use 228 2.1.3.2 Dominance of Knowledge on the American Case 230 2.1.3.3 Revision of Political Participation Definition 231 2.1.4 Conditional Effects on Political Participation (Tentative Theory) 232 3. The Internet and Political Participation Forms 233 3.1 The Internet and Conventional Participation Forms 234 3.1.1 The Internet and Partisan Activities 234 3.1.2 The Internet and Voter Turnout 235 3.1.2.1 The Direct Effects of the Internet on Voter Turnout 235 3.1.2.2 The Indirect Effects of the Internet on Voter Turnout 238 3.2 The Internet and Unconventional Participation Forms 240 3.2.1 Online Communication and Network Theory 241 3.2.2 Social Networks and Political Participation 242 3.2.3 E-Networks and Political Participation 243 4. Online Campaign and Development of Networked Communities 244 5. New Networking Techniques from the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election 246 S.l.Blog 246 5.2 NovemberCalling.Com 246 5.3 Fundraising Network: ActBlue 247 5.4 Walk the Vote Sign Up 247 5.5 Participating in Local Events 248 5.6 Candidate Link Supporters 248 6. Proposed Model of the Relationship between the Internet and Political Participation 249 CONCLUSION 251 BIBLIOGRAPHY 262 APPENDIX: 294 Appendix 1: Scoring System: Website Analysis 294 Appendix 2: Analyzed Party and Candidate's Websites 296 10