CHAPTER IV SCHEDULED TRIBES IN INDIA AND TAMIL NADU AN OVERVIEW

CHAPTER IV SCHEDULED TRIBES IN INDIA AND TAMIL NADU AN OVERVIEW Tribal development as a subject has been an important area of inquiry in the social sciences. In recent years, the subject has acquired immense importance both at the national and international level. The active support and hectic campaign by a number of international Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) championing the cause of the 'indigenous people' has made it a burning issue all over the world. Further, the United Nations' declaration of 1993 as the International Year for World's Indigenous People Provides ample evidence of the upward apprehensive of the world's highest body for the development of the indigenous people entire the world. Meaning of Adivasi Adivasi - Adi means oldest and vasi means inhabitant is commonly used to designate them 1. According to the Anthropological Survey 2011, a total of 4,635 communities are now to be found in India. Out of this total, tribal or Indigenous communities number 732. The inclusion of a community as a Scheduled Tribe is an ongoing process 2. The essential characteristics, first laid down by the Lokur Committee, for a community to be identified as Scheduled Tribes are 3 a) Indications of primitive traits, b) Distinctive culture, c) Shyness of contact with the community at large, d) Geographical isolation and e) Backwardness. Characteristics of Tribal Economy The following nine characteristics of primitive economic systems as found in tribal India 4. They are,

116 (i) There is an absence of technological aids in a tribal economy, which results in inefficient, inadequate or even wasteful exploitation of nature as illustrated by shifting and ex-cultivation. Consequently, with great effort, the basic minimum necessary for sustenance is raised. Thus an economic surplus is rare among the tribes. (ii) Economic relations are based on barter and exchange among the tribes. Money as a store and measurement of value and as a medium of exchange is not widely used. Institution, connected with money, such as banking and credit are used only in dealings with non-tribal groups and this depends on the nature and frequency of contacts. (iii) The profit motive in economic dealings is generally absent. The role of an incentive is fulfilled by a sense of mutual obligation, sharing and solidarity. (iv) Co-operative and Collective endeavor is an important feature of tribal economy. (v) The rate of innovation, internal and induced is very low, and as a result, they are stable and there is little of quick progress. (vi) The regular market as an institution is absent and consequently the features of regular market, like perfect competition and monopoly are also absent. What comes nearest to it is the weekly market or the festival and seasonal meets. (vii) Manufacturer of goods basically for consumption is not for hoarding or exchange in trade. (viii) Absence of specialization based on specially acquired specific technical abilities. However, a division of labour based on factors other than specialization like sex is widely prevalent. (ix) The notion of property is closely related to display an expenditure of wealth rather than its accumulation.

Map-4.1 117

118 Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Approaches for Tribal Development In a democratic state, one group of people should not remain outside the mainstream society. Scheduled Tribes have to be involved in all the matters concerning their country. After independence, Planned development started and broadly three different approaches were advanced (1). Isolationist (2). Assimilaitonist (3). Integrationist 5. The first approach was a legacy of the British regime, and is usually described as leave them untouched. The policy was to isolate the tribal population from the masses. The British took deliberate efforts not to develop communication in the tribal areas. Scheduled Tribes were kept away from the rest of the population. Verrier Elwin (1934) supported the establishment of a sort of National Park or Specimens in a human Zoo of the tribes and advised that their contact with the outside should be reduced to the minimum. But this approach was not followed for long. The assimilationist approach is the approach which paved the way for the tribal people to mingle with neighbouring non-tribals. In India, the process of assimilation took place in different parts of the country, resulting in the gradual acceptance of Hindu culture by the tribes. The main criticism against this approach was that this tried to change the tribes by imposing the non-tribal customs and traditions. The Advocates of this view supported a direct assimilation without waiting for a slow and long-drawn change over. The approach is also considered to be a failure. The past experience of the policies of isolation and assimilation, forced the planners to take the middle way between the two, which is called the integrationist approach. This approach was mainly the brainchild of Jawaharlal Nehru. The policy of integration consists of two types of measures for tribal development, such as Protective and Promotional

119 measures. The former consists of land polices, forest policies and the policies to protect tribal culture and traditions. Tribal Scenario in India India has one of the largest concentrations of tribal population in the world after Africa. The tribal areas of India are mostly sheltered and remote, as a result of it a very little is known about their conditions and problems. The tribes are more compared not only in relation to the general population, but also compared with scheduled caste; the other acknowledged backward social group with constitutional protection 6. The gains of development efforts rarely accrued to them or have very little relevance to their problems. It is felt that the serious imbalances in the ownership of assets and income distribution joined with spread unemployment and under-employment worsened among these sections. Hence it has been called for serious concern among the policy makers and planners to think on all round development of these sections. The populations of Scheduled Tribes according to 2011 Census constituted 8.6 per cent of the total population of the country. The constitution of India stresses the need of special efforts to improve the conditions of economically and socially backward sections of the society in general, which include the scheduled tribes. The details of Scheduled Tribe population in India as per 2011 census are stated in table-4.1. Table-4.1 Details of Scheduled Tribes Population in India as per 2011 census STs population (in crores) Growth rate Percentage of STs to Sex 2001 2011 (in percent) total population Person 08.43 10.43 23.70 8.6 Male 04.26 05.24 22.90 8.4 Female 04.17 05.19 24.40 8.8 Source: Primary Census Abstract, Census of India, 2013.

120 The table-4.1 shows that the total population of Scheduled Tribes had increased from 8.43 crores in 2001 to increase as 10.43 crores in 2011 as its growth rate was 23.70 per cent. It was consisted 8.6 per cent to total general population in India as per 2011 census. The Male population had from 4.26 crores in 2001 increase to 5.24 crores in 2011. Female population had 4.17 crores in 2001; it was increased to 5.19 crores in 2011. The population of the tribes had grown at the rate of 23.7 per cent during the period 2001-2011. Male Population was higher than Female Population, but in growth rate was less than the female population in the category of Scheduled Tribes. The details of trends and the proportion of the Scheduled Tribes population in India from 1961 to 2011 are given in table-4.2. Table-4.2 Trends and Proportion of Scheduled Tribes population in India, 1961-2011 S.No. Year Total Population (in millions) STs Population (in millions) Percentage of STs Population to Total Population Decadal Growth Rate 1 1961 439.24 29.88 6.86 41.19 2 1971 548.16 38.02 6.94 33.84 3 1981 683.33 51.63 7.83 24.80 4 1991 846.42 67.76 8.08 24.69 5 2001 1028.74 84.30 8.20 22.70 6 2011 1210.19 104.30 8.61 23.70 Source: Various issues of Census of India Reports, 1961-2011, Government of India. The table-4.2 showed the trends and the proportion of the Scheduled Tribes population in India. This revealed that total the population from 439.24 million in the year of 1961 to 1210.19 million in the year of 2011. The Scheduled Tribes population has increased from 29.88 million in the year of 1961 to 104.30 million in the year of 2011. The table shows that general population as well as Scheduled Tribes population was increased progressively. The per cent of the Scheduled Tribes population to the total population of

121 India from 6.86 in the year of 1961 has increased to 8.61 in the year of 2011, it was regularly increased. The Decadal growth rate of Scheduled Tribes population has decreased from 41.19 per cent in 1961 to 22.70 per cent in the year of 2010. But it was increased at 23.70 per cent in 2011. The above data reveals that there has been a sharp increase in the population with compared to Scheduled Tribes Population. Various Regional of Scheduled Tribes Population in India More than half the Scheduled Tribe population is concentrated in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand and Gujarat. The largest concentrations of indigenous peoples are found in the states of north-east India and central India. However, they have their presence in all states and Union Territories except Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, Puducherry, and Chandigarh. Though, tribal is distributed all over the country one can identify a few concentration points such as Nagaland, Chota Nagapur, Nilgiris Hills. There was identical six fold classification on the basis of regional distribution of the tribal population 7. They are, (i) North-Eastern Region: In the states of Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam, Mizoram, Meghalaya tribes like the Abor, Garo, Khasi, Mizo, Naga, and Mismi, who mostly belong to the Mongolian racial stock. (ii) Himalayan Region: In the Sub-Himalayan regions covering parts of North Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh tribes like Lepcha, Rabha mostly belong to a Mongolian racial group. (iii) Central India Region: In the older hills and Chota Nagpur Plateau, along the dividing lines between Peninsular India and the Indo-Gangetic basin live many tribal communities like the Bhumji, Gond, Ho, Oraon, Munda, Santhal covering the states of

122 Bihar, Orissa, Madhaya Pradesh and West Bengal and mostly belonging to Proto- Australaid racial stock. (iv) Western India Region: Covering the states of Rajasthan, Maharastra, Gujarat, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli live a number of tribal communities, the most important of them being the Bhil racially belonging to the Proto- Ausraloid group. (v) Southern India Region: Covering the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, in the Nilgiris hills and converging lines of the Ghats live the Chenchu, Kadar, Toda having Negrito, Caucasoid, Proto-Australoid or mixed Physical features. (vi) Island Regional: Covering Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands live a number of small tribes like Andamanese and Onge. The structure of their economy is generally based on forests and, on sea and forests for those living in coastal and islands area. Small in size and operation, the use of simple and crude technology is an important structural feature of the tribal economy where the family acts as a unit of both production and consumption. The community itself acts like a cooperative unit and the tribal communities living in a village or location are economically interdependent. While the distribution is generally based on gift and ceremonial exchange, absence of profit motive in economic dealings and presence of periodical local markets are two special features rampant in tribal economy. Another important aspect of tribal economy is the low level of its monetization and barter system Population of General and Scheduled Tribes in India, 1991-2011 The details of General Population and Scheduled Tribes in India, 1991-2011 are presented in the table-4.3.

123 S.No. Table-4.3 Comparative aspects of the General population and Scheduled Tribes population in India, 1991-2011 States and Union Territories General Population (in numbers) ST Population (in numbers) 1991 2001 2011 1991 2001 2011 India 83,85,83,988 102,86,10,328 121,05,69,573 6,77,58,380 8,43,26,240 10,42,81,034 1 Jammu & Kashmir NA 1,01,43,700 1,25,41,302 NA 11,05,979 14,93,299 2 Himachal Pradesh 51,70,877 60,77,900 68,64,602 2,18,349 2,44,587 3,92,126 3 Punjab 2,02,81,969 2,43,58,999 2,77,43,338 NA NA NA 4 Chandigarh 6,42,015 9,00,635 10,55,450 NA NA NA 5 Uttarakhand NA 84,89,349 1,00,86,292 NA 2,56,129 2,91,903 6 Haryana 1,64,63,648 2,11,44,564 2,53,51,462 NA NA NA 7 Delhi 94,20,644 1,38,50,507 1,67,87,941 NA NA NA 8 Rajasthan 4,40,05,990 5,65,07,188 6,85,48,437 54,74,881 70,97,706 92,38,534 9 Uttar Pradesh 13,91,12,287 16,61,97,921 19,98,12,341 2,87,901 1,07,963 11,34,273 10 Bihar 8,63,74,465 8,29,98,509 10,40,99,452 66,16,914 7,58,351 13,36,573 11 Sikkim 4,06,457 5,40,851 6,10,577 90,901 1,11,405 2,06,360 12 Arunachal Pradesh 8,64,558 10,97,968 13,83,727 5,50,351 7,05,158 9,51,821 13 Nagaland 12,09,546 19,90,036 19,78,502 10,60,822 17,74,026 17,10,973 14 Manipur 18,37,149 21,66,788 25,70,390 6,32,173 7,41,141 9,02,740 15 Mizoram 6,89,756 8,88,573 10,97,206 6,53,565 8,39,310 10,36,115 16 Tripura 27,57,205 31,99,203 36,73,917 8,53,345 9,93,426 11,66,813 (Continue.)

124 (Continued table 4.3) 17 Meghalaya 17,74,778 23,18,822 29,66,889 15,17,927 19,92,862 25,55,861 18 Assam 2,24,14,322 2,66,55,528 3,12,05,576 28,74,441 33,08,570 38,84,371 19 West Bengal 6,80,77,965 8,01,76,197 9,12,76,115 38,08,760 44,06,794 52,96,953 20 Jharkhand NA 2,69,45,829 3,29,88,134 NA 70,87,068 86,45,042 21 Orissa 3,16,59,736 38,04,660 4,19,74,218 70,32,214 81,45,081 95,90,756 22 Chhattisgarh NA 2,08,33,803 2,55,45,198 NA 66,16,596 78,22,902 23 Madhya Pradesh 6,61,81,170 6,03,48,023 7,26,26,809 1,53,99,034 1,22,33,474 1,53,16,784 24 Gujarat 4,13,09,582 5,06,71,017 6,04,39,692 61,61,775 74,81,160 89,17,174 25 Daman & Diu 1,01,586 1,58,204 2,43,247 11,724 13,997 15,363 26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 1,38,477 2,20,490 3,43,709 1,09,380 1,37,225 1,78,564 27 Maharashtra 7,89,37,187 9,68,78,627 11,23,74,333 73,18,281 85,77,276 1,05,10,213 28 Andhra Pradesh 6,65,08,008 7,62,10,007 8,45,80,777 41,99,481 50,24,104 59,18,073 29 Karnataka 4,49,77,201 5,28,50,562 6,10,95,297 19,15,691 34,63,986 42,48,987 30 Goa 11,69,793 13,47,668 14,58,545 376 566 1,49,275 31 Lakshadweep 51,707 60,650 64,473 48,163 57,321 61,120 32 Kerala 2,90,98,518 3,18,41,374 3,34,06,061 3,20,967 3,64,189 4,84,839 33 Tamil Nadu 5,58,58,946 6,24,05,679 7,21,47,030 5,74,194 6,51,321 7,94,697 34 Puducherry 8,07,785 9,74,345 12,47,953 NA NA NA 35 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 2,80,661 3,56,152 3,80,581 26,770 29,469 28,530 Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistical profile of Scheduled Tribes in India, 1991-2011. Note: NA: Not Available

125 The table-4.3 exposed general and schedule tribe population of India for the year of 1991, 2001 and 2011. For the general population, Uttar Pradesh had highest and Lakshadweep had lowest in India for the year of 1991, 2001 and 2011. Next the Scheduled Tribes, Madhya Pradesh had highest the population for the year of 1991, 2001, and 2011. But Goa had the lowest population for the year of 1991and 2001 and subsequently Daman & Diu had a lower Scheduled Tribe population for the year of 2011 in India. The Census of India 2011, evidence for that Puducherry, Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana and Delhi states did not have Scheduled Tribes in India. Demonstrate about a most of the Scheduled Tribes concentrated on Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh. The details of the comparative aspects of state and union territory-wise general population and Scheduled Tribes population in India from1991-2011are presented in table-4.3. Trends of Tribal Population in India The details of state and union territory-wise decadal growth rate of tribal population in mentioned in table-4.4. The table-4.4 revealed about of Scheduled Tribes percentage and growth rate of states and union territories of India. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Lakshadweep those states have more than 50 per cent of the Scheduled Tribe population. Lakshadweep, Mizoram states have 94 per cent of the tribal population. For 2001, Karnataka had 80.8 per cent of decadal growth rate, which is highest and Andaman & Nicobar Islands had 10.1 per cent of decadal growth rate, which is the lowest of Scheduled Tribes in India.

126 Table-4.4 State and Union Territory-wise Decadal growth rate of Tribal population States and Union Percentage of STs STs Decadal Growth rate Sl.No. Territories 1991 2001 2011 2001 2011 India 08.1 08.2 08.6 24.5 19.1 1 Jammu & Kashmir NA 10.9 11.9 12.1 35.0 2 Himachal Pradesh 04.2 04.0 05.7 NA 60.3 3 Punjab NA NA NA NA NA 4 Chandigarh NA NA NA NA NA 5 Uttarakhand NA 03.0 02.9 NA 14.0 6 Haryana NA NA NA NA NA 7 Delhi NA NA NA NA NA 8 Rajasthan 12.4 12.6 13.5 29.6 30.2 9 Uttar Pradesh 0.2 0.1 0.6 NA 95.0 10 Bihar 07.7 0.9 01.3 NA 76.2 11 Sikkim 22.4 20.6 33.8 22.6 85.2 12 Arunachal Pradesh 63.7 64.2 68.8 28.1 35.0 13 Nagaland 87.7 89.1 86.5 67.2-03.6 14 Manipur 34.4 34.2 35.1 17.2 21.8 15 Mizoram 94.8 94.5 94.4 28.4 23.4 16 Tripura 30.9 31.1 31.8 16.4 17.5 17 Meghalaya 85.5 85.9 86.1 31.3 28.3 18 Assam 12.8 12.4 12.4 15.1 17.4 19 West Bengal 05.6 05.5 05.8 15.7 20.2 20 Jharkhand NA 26.3 26.2 NA 22.0 21 Orissa 22.2 22.1 22.8 15.8 17.7 22 Chhattisgarh NA 31.8 30.6 NA 18.2 23 Madhya Pradesh 23.3 20.3 21.1 NA 25.2 24 Gujarat 14.9 14.8 14.8 21.4 19.2 25 Daman & Diu 11.5 08.8 06.3 19.4 09.8 26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 79.0 62.2 52.0 25.5 30.1 27 Maharashtra 09.3 08.9 09.4 17.2 22.5 28 Andhra Pradesh 06.3 06.6 07.0 19.6 17.8 29 Karnataka 04.3 06.6 07.0 80.8 22.7 30 Goa 0.0 0.0 10.2 50.5 0.0 31 Lakshadweep 93.1 94.5 94.8 19.0 06.6 32 Kerala 01.1 01.1 01.5 13.5 33.1 33 Tamil Nadu 01.0 01.0 01.1 13.4 22.0 34 Puducherry NA NA NA NA NA 35 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 09.5 08.3 07.5 10.1-03.2 Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistical profile of Scheduled Tribes in India, 2011. Note: NA- Not Available

127 For the year 2001, Scheduled Tribes had increased, but not decreased. For 2011, Uttar Pradesh had 95.06 per cent of decadal growth rate, which is highest and Daman & Diu had 9.8 per cent of decadal growth rate, which is lowest of Scheduled Tribes. The only Goa state has not changed in Scheduled Tribe population. Nagaland and Andaman & Nicobar Islands states have decreased the Scheduled Tribes population. Sex Ratio and Literacy Rate of Scheduled Tribes in India, 2001-11 The sex ratio is defined as the number of females per thousand males. Sex composition of a population is an indicator of socio-economic and health conditions of males and females. In India, Sex ratio of Scheduled Tribes 978 females per 1000 males in the year of 2001 year and 990 females per 1000 males in the year of 2011as per Census of India, but it was increased among some tribes. Sex ratio of Scheduled Tribes had highest in Dadra & Nagar Haveli and had lowest in Goa in the year of 2001 and after that sex ratio of Scheduled Tribes had highest in Goa and had lowest in Jammu & Kashmir in the year of 2011. Kerala, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh states were more than 1000 females per 1000 males in the year of 2001and next, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Manipur states were more than 1000 females per 1000 males in the year of 2011. The sex ratio was increased Goa, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Manipur states in the year of 2011. The details of states and union territories-wise sex ratio and literacy rate of tribal population in the year of 2001-2011are given in table-4.5.

128 Table-4.5 Sex Ratio and Literacy Rate of Scheduled Tribes in India, 2001-11 States and Union Sex Ratio literacy Rate Sl.No. Territories 2001 2011 1991 2001 2011 India 978 990 29.6 47.1 58.9 1 Jammu & Kashmir 910 924 NA 37.46 50.6 2 Himachal Pradesh 995 999 47.1 65.5 73.6 3 Punjab NA NA NA NA NA 4 Chandigarh NA NA NA NA NA 5 Uttarakhand 950 963 41.2 63.23 73.9 6 Haryana NA NA NA NA NA 7 Delhi NA NA NA NA NA 8 Rajasthan 944 948 19.4 44.66 52.8 9 Uttar Pradesh 933 952 20 35.13 55.7 10 Bihar 929 958 18.9 28.17 51.1 11 Sikkim 957 960 59 67.14 79.7 12 Arunachal Pradesh 1003 1032 34.4 49.62 64.6 13 Nagaland 943 976 60.6 65.95 80.0 14 Manipur 980 1002 53.6 65.85 77.4 15 Mizoram 984 1007 82.7 89.34 91.5 16 Tripura 970 983 40.4 56.48 79.1 17 Meghalaya 1000 1013 46.7 61.34 74.5 18 Assam 972 985 49.2 62.52 72.1 19 West Bengal 982 999 27.8 43.40 57.9 20 Jharkhand 987 1003 27.5 40.67 57.1 21 Orissa 1002 1029 22.3 37.37 52.2 22 Chhattisgarh 1012 1020 26.7 52.09 59.1 23 Madhya Pradesh 975 984 18.4 41.16 50.6 24 Gujarat 973 981 36.4 47.74 62.5 25 Daman & Diu 947 977 52.9 63.42 78.8 26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 1028 1010 28.2 41.24 61.9 27 Maharashtra 973 977 36.8 55.21 65.7 28 Andhra Pradesh 972 993 17.2 37.04 49.2 29 Karnataka 971 990 36 48.27 62.1 30 Goa 892 1046 42.9 55.88 79.1 31 Lakshadweep 1003 1003 80.6 86.14 91.7 32 Kerala 1021 1035 57.2 64.35 75.8 33 Tamil Nadu 980 981 27.9 41.53 54.3 34 Puducherry NA NA NA NA NA 35 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 948 937 56.6 66.79 75.6 Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistical profile of Scheduled Tribes in India, 2011. Note: NA- Not Available

129 The literacy rate among the states, Mizoram had 89.34 per cent of literate, which is highest and Bihar had 28.17 per cent of literate, which is lowest of the Scheduled Tribe population in the year of 2001 and Mizoram had 91.50 per cent of literate, which is highest and Andhra Pradesh had 49.2 per cent of literate which is lowest of the Scheduled Tribe population in the year of 2011. All states of India, Scheduled Tribes have more than 50 per cent of literate, except Andhra Pradesh and non-tribal states in the 2011 year. Contrasts with 1991 year, its make known most of the states have below 20 per cent and 40 per cent of literacy rate. Only seven states of them have more than 50 per cent of literacy rate. Occupational Category of General and Scheduled Tribes Population in India The details of percentage-wise category of occupation of general and Scheduled Tribes population in India as per 2011 census are given in table-4.6. Table-4.6 Occupational Category of General and Scheduled Tribes Population in India, 2011 Population (in percent) Sl. No. Category of Occupation General STs 1 Total Workers 39.01 49.06 2 Cultivators 31.65 44.71 3 Agricultural Labour 26.55 36.85 4 Household Industry 04.22 02.13 5 Other Workers 37.59 16.31 6 Non-Workers 60.09 50.94 Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistical profile of Scheduled Tribes in India, 2011. The table-4.6 showed that category of occupation of Scheduled Tribes in India. Total workers of Scheduled Tribes were 49.06 per cent compared to 39.1 per cent of the general population, while non-workers of Scheduled Tribes were 50.94 compared to 60.9 of the general population. Among the total workers, Scheduled Tribes were higher than the general

130 population. Cultivators of Scheduled Tribes were 44.71 per cent compared to 31.1 per cent of the general population. Agricultural Labour of Scheduled Tribes was 36.85 per cent compared to 26.55 per cent of the general population. Among Scheduled Tribes, Cultivators were higher than Agricultural labour. But in households, industry of Scheduled Tribes was less than the general population. Other workers were 50.94 per cent of Scheduled Tribes compared to 60.9 per cent of the general population. Primitive Tribal Groups Primitive Tribal Groups are Scheduled Tribes known for their declining or stagnant population, low level of literacy, pre-agricultural technology, primarily belonging to the hunting and gathering stage, and extreme backwardness. They were considered as a special category for support for the first time in 1979. There are 75 Primitive Tribal Groups spread over 15 states and union territories 8. The essential characteristics of these communities are primitive traits, geographical isolation, distinctive culture, and the shyness of contact with the community at large and economic backwardness. Tribal communities live in about 15% of the country areas, in various ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains and forests to hills and inaccessible areas. Tribal groups are at different stages of social, economic and educational development 9. While some tribal communities have adopted a mainstream way of life, at the other end of the spectrum, there are certain Scheduled Tribes, 75 in number known as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PTGs). The details of state-wise Paniyan tribal population in India are provided in table-4.7. Among the primitive Paniyan tribal groups in

131 India, Paniyan are only concentrated in the southern states such as Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Table-4.7 State-wise Primitive Paniyan Tribes population in India, 2011 Sl. No. of Paniyan population Sex No. States HHs Total Male Female ratio 1 Karnataka 146 495 237 258 1,089 2 Kerala 19,331 88,450 42,775 45,675 1,068 3 Tamil Nadu 2,490 10,134 4,898 5,236 1,069 Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistical profile of Scheduled Tribes in India, 2011. The Table-4.7 shows that state wise Paniyan tribes population details of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. As per 2011 census, the number of households of Paniyan tribe were highest in Kerala whereas the lowest in Karnataka. In India, the total population of Paniyan tribes 89 per cent were living in Kerala, 10 per cent of them were living in Tamil Nadu and one per cent was in Karnataka. The sex ratio among the Paniyan tribe in India was 1089 in Karnataka, 1068 in Kerala and 1069 in Tamil Nadu. It s revealed that female population, higher than male population. The details of state-wise Paniyan tribal literacy and work participation rate in India are stated in table-4.8. Table-4.8 State-wise Literacy and Work Participation Rate among Paniyan tribes in India, 2011 (in percent) Sl. Literacy Rate Work Participation Main Marginal No. States Total Male Female Rate worker workers 1 Karnataka 51.6 57.3 46.1 61.2 95.7 04.3 2 Kerala 63.2 69.9 57.0 49.8 68.5 31.5 3 Tamil Nadu 48.3 53.2 43.7 52.6 82.2 17.8 Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistical profile of Scheduled Tribes in India, 2011.

132 The table-4.8 is evidence of the literacy rate was 51 per cent, 63 per cent, 48 per cent in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu respectively, but in Tamil Nadu state have low levels of literacy among Paniyan tribes. Work Participation Rate and Main worker of Paniyan tribes were higher in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu than Kerala. Tribal Development and the Five Year Plans 10 The Constitutional commitments prompted the Policy-makers and Planners to accord high priority to the welfare and development of Scheduled Tribes Right from the beginning of the country developmental planning, launched in 1951. The First Five-Year Plan (1951-56) clearly laid down the principle that the general development programs should be so designed to cater adequately for Backward Classes and special provisions should be used for securing additional and more intensified development. It did not play any specific and special attention towards the development of tribal areas, because only certain piecemeal attempts such as educational schemes, welfare schemes were introduced. The Second Five-Year Plan (1956-61) envisaged that the benefits of economic development should accrue more and more to the relatively less privileged classes of society in order to reduce inequalities. As for the Scheduled Tribes, welfare programs have to be based on respect and understanding of their culture and traditions and an appreciation of the social, psychological and economic problems with which they are faced. This was in tune with Panchsheel -the Five Principles of Tribal Developmentenunciated by the first Prime Minister, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru. An important landmark during the Second Plan was the creation of 43 Special Multi-Purposes Tribal Blocks (SMPTBs) later called Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs). Each was planned for about 25,000 people

133 as against 65,000 in a normal block. An amount of Rupees 15 lakhs per Special Multi- Purposes Tribal Blocks was contributed by the Central Government. The Committee on Special Multi-Purposes Tribal Blocks set up the working of these blocks and found that they were providing very useful services. The Third Five-Year Plan (1961-66) advocated the principle to establish greater equality of opportunity and to bring about a reduction in disparities in income and wealth and a more even distribution of economic power. While appraising the programs of the Third Plan the Shilu Ao study team remarked that if progress is to be judged by what remains to be done to bring the tribal on par with the rest of the population, the leeway is still considerable. The Tribal Development Block System had been implemented under third five year plan. This system was evolved not only to improve the conditions in the tribal areas, but also to involve the tribal people in the process of development with the aid of Panchayat Institutions. The Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969-74) proclaimed that the basic goal was to realize a rapid increase in the standard of living of the people through measures which also promote equality and social justice. An important step was setting up of six pilot projects in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa in 1971-72 as Central Sector Scheme with the primary objective of combating political unrest and left wing extremism. A separate Tribal Development Agency was established for each project. The Fourth Plan outlay for each was rupees 1.50 crore for the core programs of economic development and rupees 0.50 crore for arterial roads. These agencies were later merged with Integrated Tribal Development Projects during the Fifth Plan.

134 The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-78) marked a shift in the approach as reflected in the launching of Tribal Sub-Plan for the direct benefit of the development of tribal. The Tribal Sub-Plan stipulated that funds of the state and the centre should be quantified on the population proportion basis, with budgetary mechanisms to ensure accountability, non-divert ability and utilization for the welfare and development of Scheduled Tribes. With this trust the concept of Tribal Sub-Plan came into action during the Fifth Plan. There has been a substantial increase in the flow of funds for the development of Scheduled Tribes under this arrangement, resulting in the expansion of infrastructure facilities and enlargement of coverage of the target groups in the beneficiary oriented programs. For operational purposes, the Tribal sub-plan areas have been organized in 178 tribal development projects during the fifth plan. The financial investment flows in Tribal Sub-Plan came from four importance sources (1) outlays from the State Governments plan, (2) Sectoral outlay from Central Ministries / Departments, (3) Institutional Finance and (4) Special Central Assistance. The Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-85) was sought to ensure a higher degree of devolution of funds so that at least 50 per cent of tribal families were provided assistance to cross the poverty line. The emphasis was on family-oriented economic activities rather than infrastructure development schemes. A Modified Area Development Approach was devised for pockets of tribal concentration with a population of 10,000; at least half of them being Scheduled Tribes, and 245 Modified Area Development Approach pockets were delineated. Also, 20 more tribal communities were identified as primitive, raising the total to 72.

135 The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-90) there was a substantial increase in the flow of funds for the development of Scheduled Tribes, resulting in the expansion of infrastructural facilities and enlargement of coverage. Emphasis was laid on the educational development of Scheduled Tribes. For the economic development of Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes, two national level institutions were set up (i) Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation in 1987 as an apex body of State Tribal Development Cooperative Corporations; and (ii) National Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation in 1989. The former was envisaged to provide remunerative price for the Forest and Agriculture Produce of tribal while the latter was intended to provide credit support for employment generation. The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-97) efforts were intensified to bridge the gap between the levels of development of the Scheduled Tribes and those of other sections of the society so that by the turn of the century, these disadvantaged sections of the Population could be brought on par with the rest of the society. The Plan not only emphasized the elimination of exploitation, but also paid attention to the special problems of suppression of rights, land alienation, non-payment of minimum wages and restrictions on right to collect minor forest produce. Attention, on priority basis, continued to be paid for the socioeconomic upliftment of Scheduled Tribes. A review of tribal development in early nineties revealed that Though the Tribal Sub-Plan strategy has yielded results, yet were not in a position to commensurate with the efforts put in and investments made. However the allocation for the development of Scheduled Tribes was increased during this plan period also.

136 The Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002) envisaged advancement of Scheduled Tribes through a process of empowerment, wherein efforts are to be made to create an enabling environment conductive for the exercise of their rights freely, enjoyment of the privileges and leading a life of self confidence and dignity at par with other citizens of the country. This encompasses vital components, namely (i) Social empowerment, (ii) Economic empowerment and (iii) Social Justice. The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007) an outlay of Rupees 1200 crores is provided for the Tenth Plan for the Welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, out of which an amount of Rupees1044.16 crores is provided for Scheduled Castes and Rupees 155.84 crores for Scheduled Tribes for both ongoing and new schemes. The Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of Community Development (under the Article 46 of the Constitution), set up 43 sub-multipurpose tribal blocks in the various States of India to promote the welfare and the integration of the tribes. The Eleventh Five-Year Plan 11 (2007-2012) has experienced a paradigm shift with respect to the overall empowerment of the tribal people, keeping the issues related to governance at the centre. The operational imperatives of the fifth schedule, Tribal Sub Plan 1976, Panchayat 1996, 2006; the desirability of a tribal- centric, tribal-participative and tribal-managed development process; and the need for a conscious departure from dependence on a largely under-effective official delivery system will be kept in view during this shift. The Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012-2017) The perpetuation of socio-economic backwardness among the Scheduled Tribes, in spite of the efforts made so far, presents a formidable challenge demanding effective and result-oriented steps in every developmental

137 sector in the Twelfth Plan. The approach of the Twelfth Five Year Plan must be to achieve overall improvement in the socio-economic conditions of the Scheduled Tribes. Five Year Plan-wise Fund Allocation for Tribal Welfare Indian Government has implemented various programs for Scheduled Tribes through Five Year Plans. The details of the plan-wise Fund Allocation for Tribal Welfare are given table-4.9. Table-4.9 Details of Plan-wise Fund Allocation for Tribal Welfare measures (rupees in crores) S.No. Plan period Total Fund Allocation Allocation for Tribal Development Programs Percentage 1 1 st plan (1951-56) 2,069 13.93 0.06 2 2 nd plan (1956-61) 4,800 49.92 1.08 3 3 rd plan (1961-66) 7,500 50.53 0.6 4 Annual plan (1966-67) 2,081.54 5 Annual plan (1967-68) 2,246 6 Annual plan (1968-69) 2,359 32.32 0.48 7 4 th plan (1969-74) 15,901.47 79.5 0.5 8 5 th plan (1974-79) 38,853.24 1,157.67 3 9 Annual plan (1979-80 12,176 855.16 NA 10 6 th plan (1980-85) 97,500 3,640.25 3.7 11 7 th plan (1985-90) 1,80,000 6,744.85 3.8 12 Annual plan (1990-91) 65,714.5 13 Annual plan (1991-92) 73,482.15 NA NA 14 8 th plan (1992-97) 4,34,100 22,409.65 5.2 15 9 th plan (1997-02) 8,59,200 32,087.26 3.7 16 10 th plan (2002-07) 16,18,460 1,481 0.09 17 11 th plan (2007-12) 36,44,718 3,633 0.09 18 12 th plan (2013-17) 35,68,626 NA NA Source: Documents of Planning Commission, from 1 st plan to 12 th plan, Government of India. Note: NA- Not Available *Business Standards, September 8, 2012.

138 The table-4.9 presents the commitment of government on tribal development. After independence lot of problems have risen so special concerns created for tribes in terms of population. The Government programs and fund allocation are insufficient to solve all problems. The total fund allocations to twelve five year plans have sharply increased from rupees2,069 crores in the year 1951-56 to rupees 35,68,626 crores in the year 2013-17. It was also increased in the allocation funds to the Scheduled Tribes Program from rupees13.93 crores in the year 1951-56 to rupees3633 crores in the year 2007-2012. Out of the twelve five year Plan, seventh plan period was 5.2 per cent of fund allotted to Scheduled Tribes Programs which higher than other plans. Commissions and Committees A number of Commissions and Committees were appointed in the post-independence period to look into the problems of the tribal community and they have recommended a number of steps to remove the socio-economic imbalances. The important Commissions and Committees appointed so far are 12 ; The Social Welfare Team of the Committee on plan projects 1959. The Verrier Elwin Committee on Tribal Development. The Committee on Tribal Economy in Forest Areas -1967. The Schedules Areas and Scheduled Tribal Commission (Dhebar Committee 1961). The Special working Group on Co-operatives for Backward Classes 1961, headed by Shri M.D. Bhargava as its Chairman. The Task Force on Development of Tribal Areas -1972. The Dube Committee -1972.

139 The Study Team on Co-operative Structure in Tribal Development Project Areas - 1976. The Study Group on Relief of Indebtedness, Land Alienation and Restoration in Development Agency Area -1973 headed by Shri P.S Appu as its Chairman. The team of Marketing, Credit and Co-operation in Tribal Areas -1978 (Shri K.S. Bawa Committee) The Working Group on Development of Scheduled Tribes during the 7 th Five Years Plans (1985-90). In order to give more focused attention to the development of Scheduled Tribes, a separate ministry known as the Ministry of Tribal Affairs was established in October 1999. It is the ministry for overall policy, planning and co-ordination of programs and schemes for the development of Scheduled Tribes. Due to these types of efforts, considerable changes have taken place in various regions with respect to certain socio-economic characteristics of the tribes like their ruralurban composition, literacy rates and work participation rates. The details of programs and projects implemented in India for the development of Scheduled Tribes are presented in table-4.10. Table-4.10 Programs and Projects implemented for Tribal Development in India S.No. Name of the Programs 1 Guarantee for the projection of the Tribal. Descriptions Article- 15 (4) 46,244,339 speak of special provisions meant for the administration and control of scheduled areas and tribal for their

140 welfare and protection for promoting the welfare of the ST and for raising the level of administration of - ST and tribal areas to the state level. 2 Grant-in-aid from consolidated fund of India to States(Article 275) Article -275 provides grant-in-aid from consolidated fund of India to States. 3 Special Multi-purpose Tribal Projects in selected areas. 4 Training-cum-production Centres and Subsidies. For the tribal for their intensive Development. Development of Cottage and Small Scale Industries to provide employment. 5 Colonization of tribal Tribal Colonies 6 Establishment of Co-operation Farming Societies. To make farming more economic and profitable. 7 Introduction of Improved methods of shifting cultivation. Without doing harm to the soil. 8 Education Facilities Scholarship, Free Shift. 9 Concessions Concessions were offered by Forest, Revenue, and Excise Departments. 10 Establishment tribal cultural To study various cultural problems. Institutes. 11 Job opportunity Reservation of posts in Govt. Service. 12 Cheaper Credit Enactment of Regulation Acts to counteract excessive rates of interest of money lenders. 13 Establishment of offices of the For the enforcement of the safeguards

141 Commissioner for SC/ST industries. provided for the tribal in the constitution for the evaluation of welfare schemes. 14 Establishment of LAMPS For providing integrated services such as credit, marketing, storage, distribution of consumer goods to the members. 15 Tribal Development Cooperative Corporation / Tribal Development LAMP. 16 Tribal Development Cooperative Marketing Federation (TRIFED) Established at the state level to help the Cooperative Federation. Established at National level to help the state level tribal Corporations/Federation. Source: Various Issues of Annual Reports of Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi. Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub Plan The Special Central Assistance is provided by the Ministry of tribal Affairs to the State Government as an additive to the State Tribal Sub-Plan. Special Central Assistance is primarily meant for family-oriented income-generation schemes in sectors of agriculture, horticulture sericulture and animal husbandry co-operation. A part of Special Central Assistance (not more than 30%) is also permitted to be used for development of infrastructure incidental to such income generating schemes. Special Central Assistance is intended to be added to the State Plan efforts for tribal development and forms part of Tribal Sub-Plan strategy. Socio-economic development of the Scheduled Tribes Protection of tribals against exploitation of the tribal, Special Central Assistance primarily fund schemes/projects for economic development of Scheduled Tribes.

142 Special Central Assistance for the Economic Development Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP) area contiguous large area in which Scheduled Tribes population is 50% or more out of a total population. Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) pockets identification of pockets containing 50% or more of Scheduled Tribes population out of a total population of 10000 and above Clusters-identified pockets containing 50% or more Scheduled Tribe Population out of a total population of 5000. Primitive Tribes-Identified isolated communities among the Scheduled Tribes characterized by the low rate of population, pre-agricultural level of technology and extremely low levels of literacy (75 Primitive Tribal Groups) have been identified. Assistance for Margin Money Loan Program (MMLP) for Tribal Finance and Development Corporations in the States to implement Assistance for Margin Money Loan Program. Programmes for Tribal Welfare A number of employment oriented and developmental programs for tribes have been introduced by the government of India. The major programmes are Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP), Jawahar Rosgar Yojana (JRY), Prime Ministers Rosgar Yojana (PMRY) and Training Self Employment for Rural Youth (TRYSEM). The Integrated Rural Development Program is absolutely for rural people those belong to below poverty line and others are for both rural as well as urban youth. All these schemes are implemented in the state by District Rural Development Agencies (DRDA s) in collaboration with Commercial and Co-operative Banks. Prime Ministers Rozgar Yojana was initiated in October 1993 to tackle the burning problem of

143 educated unemployment. Prime Ministers Rozgar Yojana relates to setting up of selfemployment ventures through industries and services. Any unemployed youth who is metric failed / passed or above or is eligible for the benefits of the scheme subject to the condition that if he is between the age group of 18 to 35 years and his family income does not exceed rupees 24,000 per annum 13. The youth should also be the permanent resident of the areas for at least three years and he should not be a defaulter to any bank or financial institution. The scheme envisages 22.5 per cent reservation for Scheduled Castes / Scheduled Tribes and 27 per cent for Other Backward Caste. A maximum loan of rupees one lakh per candidate is provided under this scheme, at an interest rate of 12.5 per cent to 15.5 per cent. The entrepreneur has to contribute 5 per cent of project costs as margin money. No collateral security guarantee is asked for such loans. Period of repayment starts after a moratorium of six to eighteen months and range over 3 to 7 years. The government provides subsidy to the extent of 15 per cent of the total loan embossed with a ceiling of rupees 7,500 per entrepreneur. In case of joint venture each partner may be provided a loan of rupees one lakh subsidy. In such cases the interest is calculated for each partner separately at a rate of 15 per cent of his shares in the project cost limited to rupees 7,500 for each partner. With the objective of providing technical skills to rural youth to enable them to take up self employment in the fields of agriculture and allied activities, industries, services and business activities, the scheme of Training Self Employment for Rural Youth was introduced in the year 1979 on the Independence Day. The scheme works as a part of the Integrated Rural Development Program and aims at imparting training to about two lakhs

144 rural youths every year from the 5,011 development block of the county and to lift them above the poverty line 14. Under this scheme, those rural youth who are in the age group of 18 to 35 years with annual timely income from all sources are not exceeding rupees 8,500/- are eligible for selection. Preference is given to Scheduled Tribe (50 per cent) women (40 per cent) and physically handicapped (3 per cent). The selected beneficiaries are trained in the field of agriculture and allied activities, industry, service and business activities. The trainees are paid a monthly stipend or daily allowance during the training period. The training institution is provided an honorarium along with rupees 75 per trainee per month for the purchase of raw materials. After completion of training, the beneficiaries are assisted in getting finance from the banks. Beneficiaries also provide marketing support for their finished products. The amount spent on this scheme is contributed by the Central and the State governments in 50:50 ratios. Since 1983 the scope of Training Self Employment for Rural Youth scheme has been enlarged. The Tribal Panchasheela' Two Committees were set up one in May 1959 under the Chairmanship of the Anthropologist Verrier Elwin and the other in April 1960 under the Presidentship of Dhebar, to examine the programs and projects blocks. Both the Committees submitted their reports in 1960 and 1961 respectively. The reports have emphasized and amplified the five fundamental principles enunciated by Nehru in 1957. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 in his foreword to Verrier Elwin s The Philosophy for North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA), has laid down in five principles, that is,

145 Panchasheela, the policy of integration. The tribal Panchasheela as has been enunciated by him are as follows 15 : Nothing should be imposed on the tribal people. They must be allowed to develop along the lines of their own genius. We should try to encourage in every way their own traditional arts and culture. Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected. The attempt must be made to train and build up a team of their own people to the work of administration and development. Some technical personnel from outside will be of great help for them in the beginning. But too many outsiders must not be sent to the tribal territory. Over- administering the tribal areas or overwhelming them with too many schemes must be avoided. We should not work in rivalry to their own social and cultural institutions. The results of the work must be adjudged by the quality of the human character that is evolved and not by statistics or the amount of money spent. Constitutional Safeguards The Indian Constitution prescribes protection and safeguards for the Scheduled Tribes, and other backward classes either specially or by way of insisting on their general rights as citizens with the object of promoting their educational and economic interest and or removing the social disabilities. The main safeguards are 16 ; Article 46: The promotion of their educational and economic interests and their protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

146 Article 25: The throwing open by law of Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus. Article 14: The removal of any disability, liability, restriction of condition with regard to access to shop, public restaurants, hotels, and places of public entertainment or the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public. Article 19 (5): The curtailment by law, in the interests of any Scheduled Tribe to settle in, and acquire property. Article 29: The forbidding of any denial of admission to educational institutions maintained by the state receiving aid out of State funds. Article 16 and 335: Permitting the state to make reservation of the backward classed in public services in case of inadequate representation and requiring the State to consider the claims of the Scheduled Tribes in the making of appointments to public services. Article 330, 332 and 334: Special representation in the Lok Sabha and the state Vidhan Sabhas to Scheduled Tribes till 25 January 1990. 164 and 338 and Fifth Schedule: The setting up of tribal advisory councils and separate departments in the states and the appointment of a special officer at the centre to promote their welfare and safeguard their interests. Article 244: and Fifth and Sixth schedules: Special provision for the administration and control of scheduled and tribal areas and Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.