THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY Historical background. -The Roman Empire. -The Italian culture and the rennessance. -The French Revolution and The Napoleonic Wars. -The Vienna settlement. -Mazzini and the idea of an Italian state (Risorgimento). -Nationalistic upheavals during the 1820s, 1830s and 1848. Titel: jan 14-10:35 (Sida 1 av 52)
The Papacy The influence of Papal diplomacy over the previous millenium where the Popes had tended to strongly support the existence of a number of small states in the north of the peninsula such that no strong power might presume to try to overshadow the papacy. Such political decentralisation may have facilitated the emergence of a number of mercantile city states Titel: jan 14-12:32 (Sida 2 av 52)
Sardinia-Piedmont The former Duchy of Savoy meanwhile, originally based on limited territories north of the Alps, had expanded to also include Nice, Piedmont (an extensive territory in the north-east of the Italian peninsula) and the island of Sardinia and was now known now by its senior title as the Kingdom of Sardinia. Titel: sep 23-08:25 (Sida 3 av 52)
Austria Habsburg Austria was awarded sovereignty over Lombardy and over the former Venetian Republic whilst the Republic of Genoa was similarly entrusted to the House of Savoy. The territories of the chuch that straddled the central portion of the peninsula were again placed under Papal sovereignty whilst to the south the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples) was restored to a junior branch of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty. Titel: sep 23-08:26 (Sida 4 av 52)
Italian nationalism The belief that "Italia" was a desireable possibility can be associated with the change in perspectives that many people, particularly from the more affluent artisan, middle and minor aristocratic classes, underwent after the American and French revolutions Titel: jan 14-12:50 (Sida 5 av 52)
Giuseppe Mazzini The central figure in the origin of "Young Italy" was one Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), who in 1821 in Genoa had witnessed the distress of the "refugees of Italy" who were in the process of fleeing into exile after their failure of their revolutionary efforts at winning reform and, moved by their example, had chosen to devote his life to the cause of Italian independence and unity. In 1827 he was initiated into Carbonari movement and was himself forced into exile in 1831 for revolutionary activity. Nicknamed "Soul of Italy" Titel: sep 23-08:29 (Sida 6 av 52)
and Liberty." He also began to move away from the philosophy of the Carbonari and subsequently founded Giovine Italia (Young Italy) a movement dedicated to securing "for Italy Unity, Independence, Mazzini's revolutionary vision extended beyond the limited objective of Italian national unity towards the liberation of all oppressed peoples. He hoped for a new democratic and republican Italy that would lead other subject peoples to freedom and liberty and for a new Europe, controlled by the people and not by sovereigns, that would replace the old order. Titel: sep 26-3:33 PM (Sida 7 av 52)
A popular uprising would create a unified republican Italy. The true foundation of Italian liberty. This would spark off a chainreaction - european nationalstates. Titel: sep 23-08:34 (Sida 8 av 52)
1834 - founding of 'The Young Europe'. A revolution needed for national liberty. In the future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with a federal Assembly. Objective; to overturn the despised Vienna settlement Titel: sep 23-08:37 (Sida 9 av 52)
growth of secret national societies (Carbonari) 1848, upheavals started in Milan (Lombardy) but spread to all italian states. Piedmont declared war on Austria and succeeded in driving the Austrian troops out of Lombardy and Venice. A republic was declared in Rome under Mazzini and under the protection of Garibaldis troops. Titel: sep 23-08:43 (Sida 10 av 52)
The 1848 49 revolts On April 7, 1848 Mazzini reached Milan, whose population had rebelled against the Austrian garrison and established a provisional government. The First Italian War of Independence, started by the Piedmontese king Charles Albert to exploit the favourable circumstances in Milan, turned into a total failure. Mazzini, who had never been popular in the city because he wanted Lombardy to become a republic instead of joining Piedmont, abandoned Milan. He joined Garibaldi's irregular force at Bergamo, moving to Switzerland with him. Titel: sep 23-08:39 (Sida 11 av 52)
On February 9, 1849 a Republic was declared in Rome, with Pius IX already having been forced to flee. On the same day the Republic was declared, Mazzini reached the city. He was appointed as "triumvir" of the new republic on March 29, becoming soon the true leader of the government and showing good administrative capabilities in social reforms. However, when the French troops called by the Pope made clear that the resistance of the Republican troops, led by Garibaldi, was in vain, on July 12, 1849, Mazzini set out for Marseille, from where he moved again to Switzerland. Titel: sep 23-08:43 (Sida 12 av 52)
Mazzini was more of a spectator than a protagonist of the Italian Risorgimento, whose reins were strongly in the hands of the Savoyard monarch Victor Emmanuel II and his prime minister, Camillo di Cavour. The latter defined him as "Chief of the assassins". Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi Titel: sep 23-08:41 (Sida 13 av 52)
Camillo Cavour Cavour s political ideas were greatly influenced by the July revolution of 1830 in France, which seemed to him to prove that an historic monarchy was not incompatible with Liberal principles, and he became more than ever convinced of the benefits of a constitutional monarchy as opposed both to absolutism and to republicanism. His views were strengthened by his studies of the British constitution, of which he was known to be a great admirer such that he was even nicknamed - " Milord Camillo Titel: jan 14-12:54 (Sida 14 av 52)
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The Crimean war Cavour wasn't very keen in pulling Sardinia in to the war. The idea was initiated by the ruler who dreamt of glory. Austria isolated as it declared itself neutral. The Empire lost its good relations with Russia. No militaryvictories but a seat in the peace congress. No immediate success. Cavour and Napoleon III Florence Nightingale Titel: sep 26-18:21 (Sida 17 av 52)
After an attempt, by an Italian nationalist, to assassinate Napoleon III the Emperor contacted Cavour. The two met at Plombieres. Napoleon convinced that Austria's involvement in Italy would trigger more terrorism. Victor Emmanuel's daughter (15) married to Napoleon's cousin (36). Titel: sep 21-2:25 PM (Sida 18 av 52)
Franco-Sardinian alliance: War against Austria. The Empire was to driven out from Italy. One North Italian state created under Sardinian leadership. One central Italian state by uniting Tuscany and Papal states. France would receive Nice, Savoy and the french speaking provinces of Piedmont The assassin Felice Orsini tried to kill Napoleon III in 1858. The bombs killed more than 150 guards and civilians. Titel: sep 26-18:29 (Sida 19 av 52)
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The War of Italian Unification. Austria provoked to attack Piedmont. France attacks Austria. Garibaldi takes command of italian volunteers. Lombardy annexed. Austrian troops remains in Venetia. Titel: sep 26-18:42 (Sida 21 av 52)
French separate peace with Austria at Villafranca. Austria alarmed by Hungarian nationalist activity and Russian troopmovements close the Austrian border. Nationalistic upheavals in central Italy. As the austrian troops couldn't defend their interests Piedmontese troops moved in. After plebiscites in Tuscany, Parma, Modena and Romagna these states united under Piedmont. Frans Josef and Napoleon meet at Villafranca Titel: sep 26-18:48 (Sida 22 av 52)
Britain forced Napoleon III to allow a stronger central- and north Italian state. Cavour, who had resigned as a protest against the peacetreaty between France and Austria, returned as prime minister 1860. Napoleon agreed to accept the Piedmontese annexation in Italy against Savoy and Nice. Titel: sep 26-18:55 (Sida 23 av 52)
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GARIBALDI AND HIS REDSHIRTS Cavour reluctant to assist Garibaldi. Jealous of his popularity. The northern revolts inspired the people of the south to revolt. The revolt was triggered by socio-economic reasons, not nationalism. The nationalists used the opportunity and invited Garibaldi. Within some months he had taken control of Sicily Assissted by a pro-nationalistic attitude in Britain (the Fleet) Titel: sep 26-19:02 (Sida 25 av 52)
When Garibaldi moved over the strait he turned to become a threat. Garibaldi was a Mazzinian republican. Cavour feared Garibaldis radicalism and republicanism. Piedmontese troops were sent to Rome to battle Garibaldi if necessary. ALso fear of foreign reactions if the pope was threatened or the balance of power shattered. Garibaldi handed over his conquests to Victor Emmanuel. Garibaldi to Victor Emmanuel: 'I salute the first king of Italy'. Titel: sep 26-19:07 (Sida 26 av 52)
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z3rtobymtta The National Anthem Titel: sep 21-2:26 PM (Sida 30 av 52)
After Italy was unified in 1861, many of Verdi's early operas were re-interpreted as Risorgimento works with hidden Revolutionary messages that probably had not been intended by either the composer or librettist. Beginning in Naples in 1859 and spreading throughout Italy, the slogan "Viva VERDI" was used as an acronym for Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re D'Italia (Viva Victor Emmanuel King of Italy), referring to Victor Emmanuel II, then king of Sardinia Verdi was the most famous of the Italian composer at the time of the unification. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nf6lweea_a Titel: loka 7-19:53 (Sida 31 av 52)
Social division, in poor, agrarian south and wealthy, urban and industrialised north. The process of unification - mostly a struggle between the old ruling and a developing middle class. The majority of the people wasn't part of it. Lingvistiq division. Only a minority spoke italian in Italy. The Catholic Church. Piedmontism. Titel: sep 26-20:37 (Sida 32 av 52)
Economic problems: Limited internal market - low level of agrucultural productivity and poverty of communications (No integrated railway network and few roads) Shortage of Capital (Lack of industrial investements). Conservatism (Improved techiques ignored) The problem of the South; diseases, feudalism, violence, banditry. The public debt after the wars of unification. The lowest wages but the highest taxes (demand kept low). Titel: sep 26-20:44 (Sida 33 av 52)
wealthy. THE NATIONAL UNIFICATION how these could be achieved. In 1852 Count Camillo di Cavour became prime minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. He was a realistic, moder n politician with clearly defined objectives and a policy He made S-P into a model state of moder n liberalism - Industrialized and Titel: jan 14-10:38 (Sida 34 av 52)
anylonger). 1855-56 - Participation in the Crimean war to put the Italian question on the map of European politics.(alexander II succeeded Nikolaj I as czar of Russia - Radical change in Russian foreign policy. Russia wasn't the police of Europe Titel: okt 13-09:08 (Sida 35 av 52)
1857: S-P:s political leadership (King Viktor Emanuel II and Cavour) gained the support of the guerillafighter Garibaldi (with his redskirts). Titel: okt 13-09:09 (Sida 36 av 52)
1858: Meeting of Plombières - Napoleon promised military aid in case of an Austrian threat. An alliance on this basis in 1859. Titel: okt 13-09:09 (Sida 37 av 52)
1859: Military preparations on the part of S-P provoked Austria to declare war. While Austria attacked it resulted in French assistance to S-P. In the peace Lombardy fell to France and from France to S-P (exchanged 1860 for Savoy, Nice). Tuscany, Parma, Bologna and Modena joined S-P after plebicites. Titel: okt 13-09:10 (Sida 38 av 52)
1860: Giuseppe Garibaldi landed in Sicily and started a uprising. Very successful which worried Cavour (Who feared an European intervention). The army of S-P started its march southwards to prevent Garibaldi from reaching Rome. Garibaldi resigned his dictatorial position and swore an oath of loyalty to Viktor Emanuel (this broke the revolutionary edge of the unification and possibly hindered an foreign intervention in Italy). Titel: okt 13-09:11 (Sida 39 av 52)
March 1861: The Italian kingdom is united, besides Venetia and Rome. Viktor Emanuel II is declared king of Italy. Titel: okt 13-09:12 (Sida 40 av 52)
1866: Through a military alliance with Prussia (Idea of Bismarck) Italy gained Venetia after a war against Austria. Titel: okt 13-09:12 (Sida 41 av 52)
1870: Rome, except the Vatican State, is included in the Italian kingdom. (Due to the Franco-Prussian war France is forced to withdraw their troops from Rome). Rome becomes the capital of Italy. Big problems between North-South, criminality etc. Titel: okt 13-09:13 (Sida 42 av 52)
IB EXAM QUESTIONS ON THE ITALIAN- AND THE GERMAN UNIFICATIONS Cavour united Italy not because he intended or wanted to, but because circumstances forced him to. To what extent do you agree with this judgement? under Prussia? In what ways, and with what results between 1862 and 1871, was Germany unified How united was Italy by 1871? Germany in 1871. Analyse the effects of the 1848 revolution in Prussia on the eventual unification of A popular patriot. How far do you agree with this judgement on Garibaldi s contribution to Italian unification? German confederation by 1862? Why, and to what extent, had Prussia replaced Austria as the leading power in the Why has it been claimed that Italian unification needed both a Cavour and a Garibaldi? gained it? How far is it true to say that Austria lost control of Germany rather than Prussia Analyse the aims, motives and policies of Cavour between 1852 and 1861. and 1871. Compare and contrast Bismarck s policies towards Austria and France between 1862 The involvement of foreign powers was of crucial importance to the unification of Italy. How far do you agree with the statement? It has been claimed that Germany was united more by coal and iron than by blood and iron. How far do you agree that economic power contributed more to the unification of Germany than did the military victories of the 1860s? Titel: okt 8-3:32 PM (Sida 43 av 52)
1) 2) 3) Analyse the aims, motives and policies of Cavour between 1852 and 1861. Important to make the distinction between; AIMS - objectives, what he wanted to achieve MOTIVES -reasons, why he wanted to achieve his objectives POLICIES -methods, how he tried to achieve the objectives 1) AIMS Piedmontese expansion or North Italian confederation under Piedmontese leadership Political strength and independence - remove the Austrian dominance on the peninsula. This wasn't fulfilled before 1866 (after the death of Cavour). Wealth and prosperity - economic liberalism and industrialisation Stability - no domestic upheavals nor foreign threat Removal of the influence of the papacy on italian affairs Transform 'Italy' to a Great European Nation Titel: loka 8-20:34 (Sida 44 av 52)
2) MOTIVES Cavour believed reforms could reduce revolutionary pressure and strengthen the government. Wanted to remove the Austrian dominance of the peninsula Wanted to cut down the powers of the papacy Nationalism Personal ambitions Titel: loka 8-20:34 (Sida 45 av 52)
3) POLICIES Piedmont - a modern constitutional monarchy The programme of economic reforms which modernised and strengthened Piedmont. Piedmont transformed to the 'leading star' of the italian nationalists. Political liberties - democratisation of the constitution, Nobility and church lost of it's influence. Economic reforms. State investment boosted the economy. Belief in market economy with minimal state intervention. The reforms were costy and some vital reforms were neglected. Good relations to Britain and France The Crimean War The alliance with France against Austria. Nice and Savoy against Venice and a removal of the Austrian influence Sent an army to Rome to prevent Garibaldi to found an Italian republic-succeede in controling the radicalism of Garibaldi but had to accept the unification of the whole peninsula+sicily Titel: loka 8-20:35 (Sida 46 av 52)
Why has it been claimed that Italian unification needed both a Cavour and a Garibaldi? Introduction; set the timespan, 1815-70 define the italian unification an explanation on how the statement will be dealt with Body of the essay: Cavour Garibaldi Cavour vs. Garibaldi the statement vs. development when is the unification finished Conclusion: Why? Titel: okt 13-13:00 (Sida 47 av 52)
Two different introductions - evaluate. Titel: loka 3-18:53 (Sida 48 av 52)
Dispositions of the bodies of the essays; Cavour; several economic reforms modernisation of S-P mediawarfare directed against Austria objective-s-p expansion in the north Crimean War-alliances military alliance with France Garibaldi The nationalist, general and courageous actionhero The conqueror of Sicily and southern Italy The popular figurehead Cavour; S-P became the ideal of the north modernisation of economy and legislation Expansion of S-P Alliance with France (deal:lombardy and Venice for Savoy and Nice) - setback and resignation Popular revolts brougt Napoleon and Cavour back Fear of Garibaldis revolutionary reputation Succeedeed in controlling Garibaldi Died during the unification, 1861 Garibaldi Improvised action in nationalistic revolt of S Massive popular support and victory Garibaldis come-back in the Prusso-Austrian war Garibaldis stubborness To much credit of the unification given to G Titel: loka 3-19:12 (Sida 49 av 52)
Two conclusions - evaluate! Titel: loka 3-19:06 (Sida 50 av 52)
The involvement of foreign powers was of crucial importance to the unification of Italy. How far do you agree with the statement? Introduction; Definition of Italian unification timespan Foreign Powers Titel: okt 13-14:06 (Sida 51 av 52)
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