Edmund Spevack ALLIED CONTROL AND GERMAN FREEDOM American Political and Ideological Influences on the Framing of the West German Basic Law (Grundgesetz) LIT
CONTENTS PREFACE xi PART ONE: INTRODUCTION 1. Overview of the Main Themes 3 a. The Context 4 b. The American Role 6 c. The German Role 8 d. Cooperation and Conflict 8 e. Aftermath 9 2. The Dominant Views on the Genesis of the Basic Law 13 a. The Basic Law as an Indigenous German Achievement The View of Helmut Steinberger, Adolf Birke, and Others 13 b. The Basic Law as a Compromise with Primarily German Input The View of Erich Hahn and Others 16 c. The Basic Law as a Compromise with Dominant Allied Influence: The View of Erhard Lange and Others 21 d. The Basic Law as an Allied Dictate: The View of Peter Schulz 26 3. The Primary Sources 34 a. Published Primary Sources 34 b. Unpublished Primary Sources 36 PART TWO: THE CONTEXT: 1941-1949 4. American Policy Discussions on Germany: 1941-1949 43 a. Isolationists versus Interventionists before and during the Second World War 44 b. The "Policy of Postponement" and Public Debate (1943-1946) 48 c. The "Policy of National Division and Western Integration" (1947-1949) 51
VI 5. Germany and the World Political Situation of 1945-1947 56 a. May 8,1945: Unconditional Surrender and the Stunde Null 57 b. The Morgenthau Plan and Fears of Economic Pastoralization 58 c. The Allied Conferences on Germany 1945-1947, the Early Cold War, and National Division 59 6. The American Military Occupation in Germany 70 a. Preconditions and Arrival 72 b. "Turning Things over to the Germans" 74 c. Legacies of Occupation and Constitution-Making: 1946-1947 76 7. Trial Run: The Lander Constitutions in the American Zone, 81 a. Views on the Framing of the Lander Constitutions 81 b. American Control and German Freedom 89 c. Hesse (1946) 97 d. Bavaria (1946) 100 e. Wiirttemberg-Baden (1946) 103 f. Bremen (1947) 105 8. Guidelines for the Basic Law. The London Six-Power Conference 113 a. Two Sessions in February-March and April-June 1948: Framework, Issues, and Problems 114 b. Allied Conflicts and Compromises in London 115 c. Allied Provisions Initially Withheld from the Germans 119 d. Publicly Known Provisions for the Future Structure of West Germany and the German Reaction 121 9. The German Domestic Economic Context 1947-1949 126 a. Economic Consolidation of Western Germany: Creation of Bizonia 0anuary 1947) and the Economic Council (June 1947) 127 b. The Marshall Plan and West German Economic Recovery 132 c. Currency Reform and Economic Reform in the Western Zones (June 1948): The Introduction of a Social Market Economy 135 d. Economic Tensions with the USSR and the Berlin Blockade (June 1948-May 1949) 139
vu PART THREE: THE AMERICAN ROLE 10. The Agenda of the American Government in Germany in 1948 147 a. U.S. Plans for Establishing a Western German State 148 b. Monitoring Constitutional Developments in the Soviet Zone 155 11. American Institutions and Methods of Intervention 164 a. OMGUS: Origins, Structure, and Objectives 165 b. The Office of the Political Adviser (POLAD) 167 c. The Office of the Governmental Affairs Adviser 168 d. The Civil Administration Division (CAD) 169 e. The Governmental Structures Branch 171 f. The Liaison Officers 172 g. The Methods of Official Intervention 174 h. The Mechanics of Informal Exertion of Influence 177 12. Constitution Framers I: The Americans 184 a. The Americans in the Making of the Basic Law 184 b. The General: Lucius D. Clay 185 c. The Diplomat Robert Murphy 190 d. The Expert Carl Joachim Friedrich 191 e. The Administrator: Edward Harold litchfield 194 f. The Liaison Officer and Expert Hans Simons 195 g. Figures Behind the Scenes: James Riddleberger and Anthony Pabsch 198 h. American and Emigre Academics Working for OMGUS: Kurt Comstock Glaser and Arnold Brecht 199 i. Americans Working on the German State Constitutions: Kenneth Dayton and Roger Wells 201 13. American Plans for Constitutional Exports to Germany 207 a. Defining Parliamentary Democracy 208 b. Individual Basic Rights 214 c. Controversies over Federalism 228 d. Supreme Court and Judicial Review 233 e. The Electoral System and Proportional Representation 237 f. Senate Versus Bundesrat Solution 239 g. The Defeat of Presidentialism 240
VU1 PART FOUR: THE GERMAN ROLE 14. German Constitutional Proposals and Allied Provisions: 1940-1948 251 a. From Weimar to Nazi Germany 253 b. Proposals of the German Resistance 255 c. Proposals of Exile Groups 257 d. Lander Constitutions 260 e. German Postwar Drafts for a Federal Constitution, May 9, 1945 to July 1,1948 262 15. The Decisive German Forces in 1948 271 a. The Minister Presidents 272 b. The Political Parties 276 c. The Business Community 278 d. The Labor Unions 280 e. The Churches 282 f. The Civil Service 284 16. Constitution Framers II: The Germans 290 a. The Founding Generation: A New Elite for West Germany 291 b. Varieties of Foreign Links and Links to the United States 294 c. The President Konrad Adenauer 299 d. The Father of Basic Rights: Ludwig Bergstrasser 300 e. The Socialist Emigre: Fritz Eberhard 300 f. The Designer of Governmental Structure and the Supreme Court: Rudolf Katz 301 g. The America Expert: Hermann von Mangoldt 302 h. The SPD's Constitutional Expert Walter Menzel 304 i. The Bavarian Particularist Anton Pfeiffer 305 j. The SPD's Anti-Federalist Friedrich Wilhelm Wagner 306 k. The Founding Generation and Western European Integration 306 17. The German Agenda in 1948: Political Goals and Tactics 313 a. Initial Fears of Powerlessness 314 b. Rival Visions of Germany: CDU and CSU versus SPD 317 c. Preventing National Division 320 d. German Tactics Aimed at Regaining National Sovereignty 322
IX PART FIVE: COOPERATION AND CONFLICT 18. Cooperation and Conflict: Allied Interactions in 1948-1949 329 a. The Russian Departure from the Process 330 b. The American-British Relationship 333 c. American and British Conflict of Interest with France 334 19. Interactions I: Germans and Americans from Frankfurt to Herrenchiemsee 340 a. The Frankfurt Documents (July 1,1948) 341 b. The Koblenz Conference and the Initial German Response (July 8-10,1948) 345 c. The German Response of Jagdschloss Niederwald (July 21-22,1948) and the Subsequent Allied-German Negotiations 348 d. The Herrenchiemsee Conference (August 10-23,1948) 350 20. Interactions II: Germans, Americans, and the Parliamentary Council in 1948 357 a. The Parliamentary Council Begins Its Work in September 1948 361 b. The Parliamentary Council in October 1948 368 c. The Parliamentary Council in November 1948 and the Memorandum of November 22,1948 377 d. The Parliamentary Council in December 1948 and the "Frankfurt Affair" 388 21. Interactions III: Germans and Americans in 1949 405 a. From the "Frankfurt Affair" to the Second Reading: January 1949 405 b. The Third Reading in the Main Committee and the Compromise of the Committee of Five: February 1949 412 c. Allied Intervention and German Standstill: March 1949 426 d. The Washington Meeting, Final Crisis, and Breakthrough: April 1949 436 PART SIX AFTERMATH 22. Control: The Basic Law and the Occupation Statute 459 a. Second Thoughts: Kennan's "Plan A" 460 b. The Occupation Statute (April 10,1949) 464
c. Acceptance of the Basic Law (May 12,1949) 468 d. The Electoral Law and the Interim Activities of the Parliamentary Council (May-August 1949) 474 23. Securing the Basic Law in American World Policy 485 a. The First Bundestag Elections (August 1949) 486 b. The Office of Military Security (September 1949) 488 c. The Creation ofhicog (October 1949) 490 d. The Office for the Protection of the Constitution (September 1950) 494 e. Limited Sovereignty: German-Allied Agreements: 1949-1959 498 24. The Basic Law and the German Public 508 a. Indifference in 1948-1949 509 b. Tolerance in the 1950s 510 c. Crisis in the 1960s 511 d. The Rise of "Constitutional Patriotism" in the 1970s 512 e. Normalcy in the 1980s 513 f. Reunification and the Constitutional Debate in the 1990s 515 25. Constitutional Developments at the End of the Twentieth Century 522 a. German-American Constitutional Connections to the 1990s 522 b. Passing the Torch: German Constitutional Influences on Eastern Europe, South Africa, and Other Areas 524 c. The Europeanization of the German Basic Law 526 d. The Constitutional Future of the Berlin Republic 527 e. The Spirit of 1948-1949 530 BIBLIOGRAPHY 533 a. Primary Sources in American Archives 533 b. Primary Sources in German Archives 534 c. Bibliographies and Research Guides 536 d. Printed Primary Sources 536 e. Personal Memoirs 539 f. Secondary Works 540 INDEX 563