A 350583 Human Rights: Universality and Diversity EVA BREMS Professor ofhujnan Rights Law, University ofgfient, Belgium \ \ MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS THE HAGUE / BOSTON / LONDON
TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 PART ONE: Human Rights and the Universality Principle 3 I. Universality Concepts 3 A. General and World-wide Applicability of Human Rights: All-Inclusiveness 4 B. Formal Acceptance 5 C. Historical Origin 7 D. Formal Origin: Norm Creation, 8 E. Anthropological or Philosophical Acceptance 9 F. Functional Acceptance...-.-.:...; 10 G. Multicultural Composition of Human Rights 10 H. World-wide Observance of HumanRights..: 12 I. General Opposability of Human Rights 12 J. Human Rights as a Legitimate Concern of the International Community 13 K. Absence of Double Standards. 13 L. Priority of Human Rights 14 M. Indivisibility of Human Rights 14 N. Uniformity of Standards 14 0. Universality in Time 15 P. Universality as a Process 15 Q. Conclusion 16 II. Brief History of the Universality of Human Rights.17 A. Before the Universal Declaration of HumanRights 17 B. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Subsequent Evolution 20 C. Relativism 23 PART TWO: An Analysis of Non-Western Human Rights Claims 27 1. Introduction 27 A. Purpose 27 B. Selection of Material 28 C. Approach 31 II. Asian Human Rights Claims 33 A. Introduction 33 B. Central Texts and Events 35 1. The Singapore School 36 1.1. Situation : 36 1.2. General Discourse 36
vi HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY 1.3. The Economic Argument 38 1.4. The Vulnerability Argument 40 1.5. The Cultural Argument 41 1.6. Good Government 46 2. The Beijing White Papers 50 2.1. "China's Practice of Human Rights" 50 2.2. "China's Basic Position on Human Rights" 51 3. The Bangkok Declaration and the Vienna Conference 55 3.1. Situation 55 3.2. The Bangkok Declaration 56 3.2.1. Non-controversial Statements 56 3.2.2. Controversial Statements 57 3.3. The Vienna Conference 59 3.3.1. Statements 59 3.3.1.1. Singapore 59 3.3.1.2. Malaysia 61 3.3.1.3. China 62 3.3.1.4. Indonesia 63 3.3.1.5. Thailand : 64 3.3.1.6. Myanmar 65 3.3.1.7. Philippines 65 3.3.1.8. (South) Korea 66 3.3.1.9. Japan 66 3.3.2. The Vienna Declaration 67 3.3.2.1. Sovereignty, Non-interference, Double Standards 67 3.3.2.2. Universality and indivisibility 67 3.3.2.3. Development and Human Rights 68 3.3.2.4. Parts of the debate Not Mentioned 69 3.4. The Position of NGOs 69 3.4.1. Situation 69 3.4.2. Some Shared Concerns with the Governments 70 3.4.2.1. Universality 71 3.4.2.2. Indivisibility and Economic Concerns 72 3.4.2.3. The Individual and the Community 72 3.4.3. Some Points of Disagreement with the Governments 72 3.4.3.1. The Sovereignty Argument 73 3.4.3.2. The National Security Argument 73 4. Kuala Lumpur Declaration on Human Rights 75 4.1. Traditional Provisions 75 4.2. "Asian" Provisions 76 C. Interpretation 80 1. Framework 80 2. Main Claims 83 2.1. International Politics 84 2.2. Economics 85 2.3. The Individual, the Community and the State 86
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii 2.4. Interpretation and Implementation 87 3. Attitude Towards the Universality of HumanRights 88 3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity 88 3.2. The Role of Culture 89 III. African Human Rights Views 91 A. Introduction 91 B. Central Texts and Events 91 1. Legal and Political Texts 91 1.1. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights 92 1.1.1. Universality and Specificity 92 1.1.2. Peoples' Rights 95 1.1.2.1. General Remarks '. 95 a) Originality of the African Charter 95 b) Justification 96 c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement 99 d) Peoples' Rights and Individual Rights 100 1.1.2.2. Overview of the Articles 101 a) Article 19 102 b) Article 20 102 c) Article 21 105 d) Article 22 106 e) Article 23 108 f) Article 24 108 1.1.3. Individual Duties 109.1.1.3.1. General Remarks 109 a) Originality of the African Charter 109 b) Justification 110 c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement 112 d) Individual Duties and Individual Rights 113 1.1.3.2. Overview of the Articles 114 a) Article 27 114 b) Article 28 115 c) Article 29 115 1.1.4. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 118 1.1.5. Limitation and Derogation 121 1.1.5.1. Limitation 121 1.1.5.2. Derogation : 125 1.1.6. Choice and Formulation of Specific Rights 126 1.1.6.1. Omission of Rights 126 1.1.6.2. Inclusion and Formulation of Rights 129 a) Article 18 129 b) Article 17(3) 130 c) Article 7 (2) in fine.-. 130 d) Article 13(1) 131
viii HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY e) Article 14 131 1.1.7. Enforcement Mechanism 131 1.1.8. Reception of the Charter 133 1.1.9. Evaluation 135 1.2. The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child 137 1.2.1. Rights protected in both CRC and ACRWC 138 1.2.2. Rights protected only in the ACRWC, not in the CRC 142 1.2.3. Rights protected only in the CRC, not in the ACRWC 144 1.2.4. Evaluation 144 1.3. The Tunis Declaration 148 2. Academic Texts 151 2.1. Traditional Africa 151 2.2. Universality 156 2.3. Communalism 162 2.4. Development and Human Rights 163 2.4.1. Priority of Development over Human Rights 164 2.4.2. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 165 2.4.3. Conditionality 166 2.5. Stability 167 2.6. Harmful Cultural Practices 168 2.6.1. General Remarks : 168 2.6.2. The Example of Female Genital Mutilation 170 2.6.2.1. The Practice 170 2.6.2.2. The Western Campaign and the United Nations 171 2.6.2.3. African Views 175 C. Interpretation 178 1. Framework 178 2. Main Claims 179 3. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights 180 3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity 180 3.2. The Role of Culture 181 IV. Islam and Human Rights Views 183 A. Introduction 183 B. Central Texts and Events 183 1. Academic Texts 184 1.1. Fundamental Attitude: Different Tendencies 184 1.1.1. Apologetic literature 185 1.1.1.1. Common characteristics 185 a) General 185 b) Older and Better 185 c) The Rights 187 1.1.1.2. Subcategories 191 a) Attitude to "Thorny Issues" 191 b) Traditionalists and Fundamentalists 191
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 1.1.2. Appeals for Interpretation 192 1.1.2.1. Situating Ijtihad 192 1.1.2.2. Common Characteristics 193 1.1.2.3. Subcategories 194 a) Moderate Muslim Proposals 194 b) Radical Muslim Proposals 196 c) Non-Muslim Western Authors 199 1.1.3. Secularism 199 1.2. Recurring Themes 201 1.2.1. Universality 201 1.2.1.1. Rejection of Universality 201 1.2.1.2. Ambiguous Attitude Toward Universality in the Apologetic Discourse 202 1.2.1.3. Attitude Toward Universality Among Liberal Muslims 203 1.2.2. Individualism versus Communalism and Rights versus Duties 204 1.2.2.1. The relationship Between the Two Themes 204 1.2.2.2. Individualism v. Communalism 204 a) Individualism and Communalism in Islam 204 b) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights 205 1.2.2.3. Rights v. Duties 206 a) Rights and Duties in Islam 206 b) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights 207 1.2.3. The Religious Dimension 207 1.2.4. Areas of Conflict Between Islam and International HumanRights 208 1.2.4.1. Women's Rights 208 1.2.4.2. Freedom of Religion 209 a) The Problem 209 b) Solving the Problem 210 1.2.4.3. Discrimination on the Basis of Religion 213 a) The Problem 213 b) Denying or Minimising the Problem >. 214 c) Solving the Problem 215 1.2.4.4. Corporal Punishment 216 a) The Problem: Hudud Crimes 216 b) Solving the Problem 217 1.2.4.5. Slavery 219 1.2.4.6. Procedural Guarantees 220 1.2.4.7. Democratic Rights 221 1.2.4.8. Other 222 1.3. A Specific Genre: The Debate on Women in Islam 222 1.3.1. Fundamental Attitude: Different Tendencies 223 1.3.1.1. Apologetic literature 223 1.3.1.2. Feminists Appeals for Interpretation 225 1.3.1.3. Secularism 228
HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY 1.3.2. Recurring Themes 228 1.3.2.1. The Principle of Equality 229 1.3.2.2. Marriage 230 a) Choice of a Husband 231 b) Polygamy 231 c) Authority of the Husband 232 1.3.2.3. Divorce 233 a) Obtaining a Divorce 233 b) Custody 234 c) Maintenance 235 1.3.2.4. Inheritance 236 1.3.2.5. Testimony 237 1.3.2.6. Blood Money 238 1.3.2.7. Freedom of Movement / Hijab 238 1.3.2.8. Right to Work 239 1.3.2.9. Political Rights / Access to Public Functions 240 2. Islamic Declarations of HumanRights 241 2.1. Universal Islamic Declaration of HumanRights 242 2.1.1. Situation 242 2.1.2. Universality versus Particularity 243 2.1.2.1. Elements of Universality 243 2.1.2.2. Elements of Islamic Particularity : 243 2.1.3. Individualism versus Communalism 249 2.1.4. Rights versus Duties 251 2.1.5. Restriction of Rights 253 2.1.6. Thorny Issues 254 2.1.6.1. Women 254 2.1.6.2. Religion 256 2.1.6.3. Other 256 2.1.7. General Appreciation 258 2.2. Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam 259 2.2.1. Situation 259 2.2.2. Universality versus Particularity 259 2.2.3. Individualism versus Communalism..._ 261 2.2.4. Rights versus Duties ~ 262 2.2.5. Restriction of Rights 262 2.2.6. Thorny Issues 263 2.2.6.1. Women 263 2.2.6.2. Religion 264 2.2.6.3. Other 265 2.2.7. General Appreciation 266 3. Islamic Reservations to HumanRights Conventions 267 3.1. General Remarks 267 3.2. Reservations of a General Nature 271 3.3. Specific Reservations 274 3.3.1. In the ICCPR and the ICESCR 274
TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 3.3.2. In CEDAW 275 3.3.3. In the CRC 278 3.4. Evolution Over Time: Reservations as Statements in a Debate 280 C. Interpretation 285 1. Framework 285 2. Main Claims 286 3. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights 288 3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity 288 3.2. The Role of Culture 290 V. Some Common Conclusions 291 A. Main Claims 291 B. Attitude Towards the Universality of HumanRights 292 C. Flexibility and Transformation 292 PART THREE: Inclusive universality 295 I. Introduction 295 II. Upholding the Ideal of the Universality of Human Rights 296 A. Unconditional Universality 296 1. The Condition of General Formal Acceptance 296 2. The Condition of Mixed Cultural Origin or Composition 297 3. The Condition of Cross-Cultural Anthropological or Philosophical Foundations: of Mothers and Sisters 300 3.1. Mother-notions 300 3.2. Sister-notions 302 3.3. Evaluation 304 B. A Functional and Pragmatic Basis for Affirming Universality 304 1. A Functional Basis 305 1.1. The Universality of the Modern State 305 1.2. Human Suffering 306 2. A Pragmatic Basis 307 III. Necessary Consequences of the Universality of Human Rights: Toward Inclusive Universality 308 A. General Formal Acceptance 309 B. Participation in Norm Creation 309 C. Absence of Double Standards 310 D. General Opposability 310 E. Indivisibility 311 F. Cross-Cultural Acceptance in Anthropological and Philosophical Terms 311 G. Accommodating Particularities 314 1. Transformation of HumanRights Standards 315 2. Flexibility of HumanRights Standards 316 3. Limits to the Accommodation of Particularities : 318 3.1. Who Makes the Claim? 318
xii HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY 3.2.Thick and Thin Accounts of Human Rights: Gross Violations 320 3.3. Limits Inherent in the Concept of Inclusive Universality 322 IV. Further Marking Out Inclusive Universality 323 A. Methodological Implications 323 B. Comparison With Other Concepts 324 1. Minow's Relational and Contextual Approach 324 2. Taylor andhabermas: Recognising Cultural Identities 328 3. Kymlicka's Multiculturalism 332 4. Donnelly's Weak Cultural Relativism 335 V. Summing Up 338 PART FOUR: Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity 341 I. Introduction 341 II. Flexibility 343 A. Forum and Focus 343 B. Contextual Diversity in the Consideration of Human Rights Reports 345 1. "Factors and "Difficulties" ~. 346 1.1. Types of Factors and Difficulties 346 1.2. Impact on the Committee's Evaluation 349 2. Progressive Realisation 352 2.1. InthelCESCR 352 2.2. In the CRC 354 3. Conclusion 355 C. Margin of Appreciation 357 1. Focus on Europe 357 2. The Margin of Appreciation Doctrine 360 3. One Doctrine, Several Techniques 364 3.1. Contextual Variations in the Balancing between Rights and Restriction Grounds 365 3.1.1. The Principle of Balancing: Individual versus Community 365 3.1.2. Balancing in Practice 366 3.1.2.1. The Weight of the Individual Right 366 a) The Importance of the Interest: Core Activities 367 b) The Seriousness of the Interference: "Substance" or "Essence" Criteria 368 3.1.2.2. The Weight of the Community Interest 371 a) Choice from Among the Enumerated Interests in a Limitation Clause 371
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii b) Policy Field 373 I. Better Position of the National Authorities 374 II. Economic and Social Policy 376 ill. Sovereignty-related Policy Fields 377 iv. Special Regimes 378 3.1.3. Balancing on the World Level 380 3.2. Contextual Variations in Solving Conflicts of Rights 384 3.3. Contextual Factors as Mitigating Circumstances for Interferences 387 3.3.1. Local Situations 388 3.3.2. Exceptional Situations 389 3.4. Organisational Latitude for the Concretisation of Rights in Different Contexts 390 3.5. Contextual Variability in the Interpretation of Vague or General Notions 393 3.5.1. Autonomous Interpretation 394 3.5.2. Evolutive Interpretation 396 3.5.3. Margin of Appreciation in the Interpretation of Vague or General Notions 397 4. Margin of Appreciation Criteria and Inclusive Universality 400 4.1. Democracy 400 4.2. Effectiveness 405 4.3. No "Gross Violations" 407 4.3.1. Core Rights? 408 4.3.2. The Core of a Right 410 ~ 4.4. The Consensus Criterion 411 4.4.1. The Consensus Criterion in the Case-law of the European Court of HumanRights 412 4.4.1.1. Comparison in Balancing 412 4.4.1.2. Comparison in Other Legal Techniques 413 4.4.1.3. Reference to Other Conventions 414 4.4.1.4. Internal Uncertainty or Dispute 415 4.4.1.5. Consensus and Evolution 416 4.4.2. The Consensus Criterion on the World Level 418 4.4.2.1. Problematic Aspects of the Consensus Criterion in General 419 4.4.2.2. Additional Problems on the World Level 420 5. Conclusion 421 HI. Transformation 423 A. Introduction 423 B. Duties 424 1. Types of Duties 424 2. Duties in International Human Rights Law 425
xiv HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY 2.1. HumanRights Texts on the Universal Level 425 2.1.1. The Universal Declaration of HumanRights 426 2.1.2. Other Texts 427 2.2. Regional Human Rights Texts 429 2.2.1. The European Convention on Human Rights 429 2.2.2. The Americas 430 2.2.3. The African Charter on Human and Peoples'Rights 431 2.2.4. Asia 431 3. More Duties? 432 3.1. General Approach 432 3.1.1. Potential Benefits of More Duties 432 3.1.2. Avoiding Negative Effects of More Duties 433 3.2. Concrete Proposals 434 3.2.1. The Proposal of the InterAction Council 434 3.2.1.1. The Text 435 3.2.1.2. Evaluation 438 3.2.2. The Proposal of Karel Vasak 439 3.2.2.1. The Text 439 3.2.2.2. Evaluation 440 C. Economic and Social Rights and the Right to Development : 442 1. Present International Law 442 1.1. Economic and Social Rights 442 1.1.1. A Distinct Category of Rights 442 1.1.2. Challenging the Categorization 446 1.1.2.1. Positive and Negative Obligations 446 1.1.2.2. Progressive or Immediate Realization 447 1.1.2.3. Justiciability 447 1.1.2.4. Recent Developments 449 1.2. The Right to Development 450 1.2.1. History and Legal Status 450 1.2.2. Specifics of the Right to Development 453 1.2.2.1. Subjects andjjuty-holders 453 1.2.2.2. Substance 454 2. Possible Changes 457 2.1. Trade-offs 457 2.2. Upgrading Economic and Social rights 459 2.2.1. Balancing HumanRights Evaluations 460 2.2.2. Strengthening Economic and Social Rights 460 2.2.2.1. Developing the Normative Content of Economic and Social Rights 462 a) Types of Obligations 463 b) Core and Margin 464 c) Types of Violations 466
TABLE OF CONTENTS XV d) Responsibility, Victims, Response 468 e) Reformulation 468 2.2.2.2. Improving Control over the Implementation of Economic and Social Rights 469 a) Indicators 469 b) Violations 470 2.3. Upgrading the Right to Development 472 2.3.1. Balancing Human Rights Evaluations 472 2.3.2. Strengthening the Right to Development 473 2.3.2.1. Developing the Normative Content of the Right to Development 473 2.3.2.2. Improving Control over the Implementation of the Right to Development 474 D. Collective Human Rights 476 1. Collective Rights in Present International Law 476 1.1. "Nationalist" Collective Human Rights 477 1.2. Other Collective Human Rights 482 2. Perspectives from Inclusive Universality 485 2.1. Basic Attitude 485 2.1.1. Collective Rights as Human Rights 485 2.1.2. Precautions 488 2.2. Increasing Attention for Collective Human Rights 491 2.2.1. More Collective Human Rights? 491 2.2.2. Normative Development and Implementation Mechanism 492 IV. Conclusion on Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity 495 A. General Remarks 495 B. Flexibility 495 C. Transformation 501 D. Toward Operationalisation 506 GENERAL CONCLUSION 509 I. Two Central Problems 509 II. Deflating a Blown Up Debate 509 III. Promoting Inclusive Universality of Human Rights 511 IV. Disarming Mala Fide Critics 513 V. Suggestions for Further Research 514 BIBLIOGRAPHY 517 INDEX 561