China in the World Trade Organization: Antidumping and Safeguards

Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized China in the World Trade Organization: Antidumping and Safeguards Patrick A. Messerlin China finds itself in a unique situation on antidumping and safeguard issues. It is by far the main target of antidumping measures, but (so far) one of the smallest users of such measures. China s World Trade Organization (WTO) accession protocol includes stringent antidumping and safeguard provisions that its trading partners may use against its exports. The article examines three related concerns: how quickly large developing economies can become intensive users of antidumping measures, an evolution raising concerns about China s recent antidumping enforcement; how China could minimize its exposure to foreign antidumping cases, a recipe for both improving trade outcomes and for China s taking a leading role in reforming WTO antidumping; and the opportunities that the Doha Round of trade negotiations offer to China for negotiating stricter disciplines both on WTO contingent protection and on the use by China s trading partners of the special provisions included in China s accession protocol. On November 10, 2001, China was accepted as a full member in the World Trade Organization (WTO). A few weeks earlier, China s chief trade negotiator, Long Yongtu, had put stricter rules on antidumping second among China s priorities in the WTO. At that time the United States was still fighting to exclude antidumping from the topics to be discussed at the WTO Doha Ministerial Meeting and the European Union was adopting an ambiguous position. In the early stages of the negotiations under the Doha Round development agenda, China finds itself in a unique situation on antidumping and safeguard issues. China s WTO accession protocol includes special provisions on antidumping and safeguards that its trading partners may use against Chinese exports. These include continuing use of nonmarket economy status in antidumping investigations for 15 years and use of a special transitional product-specific safeguard Patrick A. Messerlin is professor of economics at Sciences Po and director at Groupe d Economie Mondiale de Sciences Po; his e-mail address is patrick.messerlin@sciences-po.fr. The author would like to thank Michael Finger, Will Martin, Edwin Vermulst, and two anonymous referees for useful comments on earlier drafts of this article. THE WORLD BANK ECONOMIC REVIEW, VOL. 18, NO. 1, Ó The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 2004; all rights reserved. DOI: 10.1093/wber/lhh032 18:105 130 105

106 THE WORLD BANK ECONOMIC REVIEW, VOL. 18, NO. 1 provision for 12 years. 1 China is by far the main target of antidumping measures even though it is one of the smallest users of such measures. But the past decade has shown how quickly large developing economies can become intensive users of this instrument, and the evolution of China s antidumping enforcement in 2002 and early 2003 raises concerns in this respect. Section I of this article describes the current situation with respect to antidumping. It is used massively by only 10 countries (4 industrial and 6 developing), and there is strong asymmetry, best illustrated by China, between countries enforcing antidumping and those targeted by antidumping measures. Section II examines how China could minimize its exposure to foreign antidumping cases an option that would be a recipe for both improving trade outcomes and for China taking a leading role in reforming WTO antidumping. Section III analyzes China s antidumping regulations and its first cases, including their crucial relationship with the existing web of the U.S. and EU antidumping cases. Section IV examines the opportunities the Doha Round offers to China for negotiating stricter disciplines both on WTO contingent protection and on the use of the nonmarket economy and transitional product-specific safeguard provisions by China s trading partners. The conclusion summarizes the crucial choices to be made by China in antidumping and safeguard policy. I. THE C URRENT S ITUATION During the November 2001 WTO Doha Ministerial Meeting, antidumping was perceived as an issue pitting developing economies, anxious to discipline the use of this instrument, against the United States, which was (and still is) reluctant to change its own antidumping regulations. However, a much more complex picture emerges from a close examination of the antidumping measures in force at the end of each year during 1995 2002, which are notified to the WTO Secretariat by WTO members. 2 Antidumping Users and Targeted Countries: A Key Asymmetry Examination of the stock of antidumping measures in force shows two main results (table 1). First, the top 10 antidumping users enforce 90 percent of the antidumping measures notified to the WTO, whereas they represent 70 percent of world gross 1. In spring 2002 the European Union and the United States declared that they would consider Russia a market economy for purposes of antidumping. However, the case for introduction of a transitional product-specific safeguard provision in Russia s accession protocol seems open. It would be interesting to make a parallel between the conditions imposed on Japan s accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and those imposed on China in its accession to the WTO. 2. Tables 1 3 treat measures taken against individual EU member states as one aggregated measure if adopted at the same time and for the same product (data for 2002 are still not complete). Table 4 follows the notifications of EU trading partners, which vary in their treatment of the European Union (as one entity or as a set of distinct member states).

Messerlin 107 T ABLE 1. Top 10 Antidumping Users, 1995 2001 (number of measures in force) Country or group 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Average number by value of imports Average applied tarrif Industrial countries Australia 78 46 40 49 39 44 59 38 0.77 5.8 Canada 79 78 78 65 72 71 85 83 0.38 4.8 European Union 140 138 138 139 159 175 175 183 0.19 4.6 United States 265 271 271 281 282 202 227 239 0.29 4.3 Developing economies Argentina 15 30 33 39 45 42 45 60 1.17 13.7 Brazil 21 28 23 28 38 43 49 54 0.51 12.5 India 13 15 24 44 58 94 115 181 1.28 39.6 Mexico 93 92 81 86 80 77 61 55 0.72 12.6 South Africa 12 29 42 56 87 96 94 80 1.81 15.0 Turkey 37 37 34 34 35 14 16 30 0.61 12.7 All other 50 59 84 102 122 117 97 0.04 China 0 0 4 8 11 17 0.03 15.8 All countries 803 823 848 923 1,017 975 1,023 0.21 Note: Measures in force include antidumping duties and undertakings in force as of December 31 of the year., Not available. a Average number per $1,000 of 1997 imports of the user country. Source: Author s computations based on WTO Reports on Antidumping (G/ADP/N series at www.wto.org), WTO trade data, and WTO (2001). domestic product (GDP) and 50 percent of the world trade. Worldwide antidumping enforcement is thus highly concentrated in fewer than a dozen countries. Second, the situation prevailing during the Uruguay Round antidumping users were almost exclusively industrial countries is no longer true. Six new intensive antidumping users are developing economies (Argentina, Brazil, India, Mexico, South Africa, and Turkey), and they have almost caught up with the four major traditional users. These new users implemented more than a third of the antidumping measures in force in 2002, up from less than a fourth in 1995. Meanwhile, the share of measures of the four traditional users declined from more than two-thirds to half the total number of antidumping measures in force during the period. In another worrisome sign of increasing use of antidumping measures, the remaining developing economies, though still small users individually, together doubled their global share of measures in force during the observation period. Examination of the stock of antidumping measures in force by targeted country shows a marked asymmetry between antidumping users and targets (tables 1 and 2). The top 10 users are the targets of less than a third of all the measures in force, and the gap between using antidumping measures and being a

108 THE WORLD BANK ECONOMIC REVIEW, VOL. 18, NO. 1 T ABLE 2. Top 10 Antidumping Targets, 1995 2001 (number of measures in force) Country or group 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Average number by value of exports a Industrial countries Australia 5 6 5 6 5 5 5 5 0.08 Canada 19 19 19 19 20 18 8 8 0.08 European Union 77 88 89 102 132 149 99 98 0.13 United States 60 66 66 68 66 62 57 67 b 0.09 Developing economies Argentina 9 8 7 7 7 7 9 8 0.30 Brazil 48 51 52 45 42 43 34 51 0.85 India 15 15 15 21 29 35 42 44 0.72 Mexico 11 15 17 17 19 21 17 17 0.15 South Africa 7 10 11 11 12 15 16 24 0.39 Turkey 9 9 6 8 10 13 12 18 0.37 All other 543 536 561 619 675 611 724 0.29 China 143 148 180 193 202 207 199 212 0.99 All countries 803 823 848 923 1,017 979 1,023 0.22 Note: Measures in force include antidumping duties and undertakings in force as of December 31 of this year., Not available. a Average number per $1,000 of 1997 exports of targeted country. b Incomplete estimate. Source: Author s computations based on WTO Reports on Antidumping (G/ADP/N series at www.wto.org) and WTO trade data. target widened in 2001 and 2002. In sum, antidumping is currently an instrument enforced by a few large countries against the smaller economies of the rest of the world. Thus there is little pressure coming from the rest of the world to urge intensive antidumping users to restrain their actions. For the top 10 antidumping users, with the exception of Brazil, the domestic interests that are hurt by foreign antidumping measures are smaller than the interests that benefit from antidumping protection. This reflects the well-known economic proposition that views protection more as a conflict between domestic export interests and import-competing interests than as a conflict between countries. To capture this aspect, the number of foreign antidumping measures in force against the exports of a top user can be adjusted by the size of the country s exports (in thousands of U.S. dollars; see table 2). These tradeadjusted measures mirror the intensity of foreign pressures imposed on the export interests of a country, thus giving an indication of the incentives of these export interests to contribute to the opening of domestic markets. These numbers can then be compared with the trade-adjusted antidumping measures in force by the country in question (see table 1), which can be interpreted as an

Messerlin 109 indication of the strength of the incentives of import-competing interests to induce their government to use antidumping. The observed imbalance between export interests and import-competing antidumping beneficiaries in the top 10 antidumping users suggests that it is unlikely that domestic coalitions in these key users, which are also key WTO players, are strong enough to support antidumping reforms in the WTO. This situation raises a question that needs to be carefully examined in the future. The data on antidumping measures in force suggest that antidumping measures by the six major developing economy antidumping users impose welfare costs on their own domestic economies that are higher than the costs imposed on industrial economies by their antidumping measures, for two reasons. First is the marked difference between the number of measures imposed by developing and industrial countries once adjusted for trade size. The average number of measures in force per $1,000 of goods imported (in 1997) by an antidumping user is a better indicator of the potential harm done by antidumping to the domestic economy than the absolute number of measures. This indicator is much higher for developing economies than for industrial countries, ranging from 0.5 for Brazil to 1.8 for South Africa and from 0.2 for the European Union to 0.4 for Canada (with an exception, Australia, at 0.8). These differences would be even larger if the number of antidumping measures were adjusted for the number of tariff lines concerned because developing economies tend to cover many more tariff items with antidumping cases than do industrial countries. The second reason for higher welfare costs is that available information (though not systematic) suggests that antidumping duties enforced by developing countries are, on average, more severe than those imposed by industrial countries and economic analysis shows that welfare costs increase more rapidly than tariffs do. China s Special Situation China has been the main target of antidumping measures 18 percent of antidumping cases in 1995 and almost 20 percent in 2001 and 2002 (see table 2). Examination of the raw number of antidumping measures imposed on Chinese exports by the top 10 antidumping users and the number of measures adjusted for trade value between each trade partner and China (the average number of cases per $100,000 of exports from China to these users) shows that China is targeted much more by developing economies than by industrial countries (table 3). China is almost exclusively targeted by the top antidumping users, all of them being relatively large economies. All this raises a key question about China s role in future antidumping activities. Will China follow the same path as other large developing economies, rapidly increasing the number of antidumping cases against other countries? Or will China adopt a different approach, minimizing the use of antidumping

110 THE WORLD BANK ECONOMIC REVIEW, VOL. 18, NO. 1 T ABLE 3. Share of Antidumping Measures in Force against Imports from China, 1995 2002 (% of total antidumping measures in force by user country) Average number Country Average share by value of imports or group 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 1995 2001 from China a Industrial countries Australia 9.0 4.3 10.0 8.2 7.7 4.5 5.1 7.9 7.0 0.7 Canada 7.6 7.7 10.3 10.8 8.3 8.5 10.6 10.8 9.1 1.8 European Union 20.7 21.7 23.2 23.0 20.8 19.4 19.4 15.8 21.2 1.0 United States 12.8 13.7 15.1 14.6 14.5 16.5 18.5 18.0 15.1 1.7 Developing economies Argentina 33.3 20.0 30.3 35.9 31.1 21.4 15.6 20.0 26.8 10.0 Brazil 14.3 14.3 21.7 28.6 28.9 25.6 22.4 20.4 22.3 4.7 India 38.5 46.7 33.3 27.3 32.8 22.3 25.2 27.1 32.3 10.7 Mexico 33.3 28.3 40.7 38.4 36.3 35.1 44.3 41.8 36.6 60.3 South Africa 8.3 27.6 28.6 23.2 19.5 18.8 19.1 22.5 20.7 12.0 Turkey 13.5 13.5 14.7 17.6 17.1 14.3 25.0 40.0 16.5 4.4 All other 34.0 28.8 26.2 22.5 18.9 12.8 15.5 22.7 Total number 143 148 180 193 202 179 199 174 Percent of all antidumping measures 17.8 18.0 21.2 20.9 19.9 18.3 19.5 19.4, Not available. a Per $1,000 of imports from China. Source: Author s computations based on WTO Reports on Antidumping (G/ADP/N series at www.wto.org) and WTO trade data. The total number of measures is based on Lindsey and Ikenson (2001). measures and invest its negotiating strength in the WTO in working for stricter antidumping rules, as its chief trade negotiator announced? Clearly, China s decision will have a decisive impact on the evolution of world antidumping enforcement and on WTO trade disciplines more generally. II. MINIMIZING C HINA S E XPOSURE TO F OREIGN A NTIDUMPING The slow pace of WTO negotiations means that China would likely not be able to get reforms of WTO antidumping rules into play for at least two (more likely four) years. Meanwhile, it will be hard for Chinese authorities to resist pressures from import-competing firms in China that demand more intensive use of antidumping procedures. One possibility: Could China adopt measures minimizing as quickly as possible its exposure to foreign antidumping, alleviating the political costs of playing a reforming role in WTO antidumping rules?

Messerlin 111 As noted, trade problems are fundamentally domestic conflicts between firms between export-oriented and import-competing industries. The country-based data discussed sheds no light on this deeper aspect of protection and can even be misleading. For instance, the strong asymmetry between antidumping users and targets shown in tables 1 and 2 could suggest that WTO members would be induced to bring more antidumping cases until the situation is so bad that WTO members collectively adopt stricter disciplines on antidumping. Arguments have already been presented suggesting that the top antidumping users are unlikely to follow this path. Taking firms behavior into account suggests a darker scenario. Petitioning firms the driving forces in antidumping enforcement may lodge antidumping complaints against several key countries to segment the world market in their products (evidence supporting this hypothesis is shown later). In that case the growing use of antidumping measures becomes not an incentive to discipline antidumping use but an incentive for firms to use the measures ever more intensively. Examining these deeper aspects of antidumping protection requires looking at the distribution of antidumping measures in force by sector or product rather than by country. A Few Antidumping-Intensive Sectors Antidumping measures are concentrated in a handful of Harmonized Tariff System sections (table 4). Metals, chemicals, machinery and electrical equipment, textiles and clothing, and plastics account for 75 percent of antidumping measures, even though these sectors account for less than half of world trade. These sectors are key sources of exports for dynamic developing economies in the first stages of industrial development, and they tend to have a high proportion of relatively standard products and oligopolistic market structures. Although the metals and chemicals sectors clearly have these features, the other sectors require a closer look, with greater disaggregation. There are few antidumping actions in the machinery and clothing subsectors that are characterized by many firms producing highly differentiated products. Most antidumping actions are in the electrical equipment and textiles subsectors that are characterized by relatively standard products produced by oligopolistic firms. This pattern strongly suggests that firms use antidumping as a cheap and powerful instrument for segmenting the markets that ongoing or scheduled trade liberalization is making more competitive. It also suggests that antidumping cases are likely to spread to such sectors as clothing that will increasingly experience product differentiation and imperfect competition (based on trademarks, goodwill, distribution channels, and the like). In sum, the observed sectoral pattern of antidumping reflects the increasing privatization of trade policy by firms that have enough initial oligopolistic power to use the procollusion bias is embedded in antidumping regulations a key lesson that should be kept in mind when implementing these regulations, in China as elsewhere.

T ABLE 4. Antidumping Measures in Force in the World by Section of Harmonized System, 1995 2000 Number antidumping measures China Harmonized System section 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Section share (%) Growth index 1998 2000/ 1995 97 Export pattern Import pattern Average applied tariff 2001 Tariff lines with tariffs <10% as % of total tariff lines 15 Metals, metal articles 276 290 305 316 372 401 33.5 117.0 6.7 9.2 9.6 68.6 6 Chemical, allied 201 203 204 210 217 228 21.6 104.1 4.7 8.0 9.4 78.2 industry products 16 Machinery, 81 85 94 95 100 81 9.2 116.1 29.2 37.8 14.4 30.0 electrical equip. 11 Textiles, clothing 48 60 61 54 70 79 6.4 114.2 19.8 7.4 21.0 12.6 7 Plasters, rubbers 53 54 55 53 66 74 6.1 108.4 3.2 7.3 15.9 18.0 17 Vehicles, 42 40 40 42 43 30 4.0 101.6 3.7 2.8 23.8 43.4 transport equipment 13 Articles of stone, plaster, cement 34 37 37 42 44 40 4.0 115.5 1.6 0.8 17.7 12.1 10 Woodpulp, paper, 18 17 21 44 44 39 3.1 207.6 0.7 3.1 13.4 26.1 paperboard 4 Prepared foodstuffs 35 31 29 31 28 27 3.1 88.9 2.1 0.8 28.4 15.7 112

2 Vegetable products 15 19 19 24 23 22 2.1 129.4 2.1 1.9 21.3 29.2 12 Footwear, headwear 21 16 9 17 13 16 1.6 70.3 4.8 0.2 23.2 0.0 18 Optical, cinema 14 11 10 9 20 23 1.5 104.0 3.4 3.6 14.3 30.1 instruments 20 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 14 15 14 13 12 14 1.4 89.7 7.1 0.4 20.2 1.2 9 Wood, articles of wood 6 6 6 5 11 11 0.8 122.2 1.1 1.7 9.8 61.9 1 Live animals, animal 4 3 4 6 7 7 0.5 161.9 1.7 1.0 18.9 21.5 products 3 Animal, vegetable fats, oils 9 9 9 2 1 1 0.5 44.4 0.1 0.5 40.6 5.9 5 Mineral products 0 0 0 9 9 9 0.5 3.7 10.9 4.1 96.3 19 Arms, ammunitions 3 3 3 3 0 0 0.2 66.7 0.0 0.0 13.0 0.0 8 Raw hides, skins, 0 0 1 1 1 1 0.1 3.0 1.4 16.4 25.0 leather products 14 Gems, jewelry 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 1.0 0.5 12.6 67.2 21 Art objects 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.2 0.8 10.9 25.0 Total 874 899 921 976 1,081 1,103 100.0 112.0 100.0 100.0 15.8 38.7 Source: Lindsey and Ikenson (2001). 113

114 THE WORLD BANK ECONOMIC REVIEW, VOL. 18, NO. 1 China s Sensitivity to Antidumping-Intensive Sectors Does China import a high proportion of products from antidumping-intensive Harmonized Tariff System sections? If so, Chinese authorities are likely to be under strong pressure to impose antidumping measures on such goods, thereby participating in the worldwide segmentation game that is the ultimate goal of antidumping enforcement. The five most antidumping-intensive Harmonized Tariff System sections in table 4 make up almost 70 percent of Chinese imports, opening the possibility that Chinese firms or foreign firms producing in China could present antidumping complaints in order to segment world markets. China s sensitivity to antidumping-intensive sectors can also be assessed from an export perspective. China s machinery and electrical equipment and textiles and clothing exports are particularly sensitive to worldwide antidumping activity (see table 4). China would appear to have been a target of foreign antidumping measures much more because of intrinsic economic features of its exported products (differentiation level and oligopolistic markets) than because China was not yet a WTO member. Chinese Policies to Minimize Exposure to Foreign Antidumping This conclusion implies that China should not expect to face fewer antidumping measures in the coming years because of its WTO accession. Rather, China should expect to continue to face a large number of antidumping cases. Of course, WTO membership gives China access to the WTO dispute settlement mechanism, which could provide some relief to Chinese exporters harassed by foreign antidumping. But this relief will probably be only marginal and shortlived. For instance, the 2001 WTO dispute settlement ruling banning use of the averaging method is already being circumvented by alternative procedures (hastily developed by creative petitioners). A more promising route for minimizing China s exposure to foreign antidumping measures may be China s own policies, beginning with its trade policy. If China s tariffs in antidumping-intensive sectors remain high at the end of its accession period, it may not adopt as many or as severe antidumping measures on imports from the rest of the world in these products (though the analysis in section I shows that the top developing economy antidumping users have not hesitated to add high antidumping measures to still unliberalized trade regimes). But such a tariff policy, far from ensuring fewer antidumping cases against Chinese exports, will facilitate new antidumping measures against exports in antidumpingintensive sectors. High Chinese tariffs will permit high prices in domestic markets in China, making dumping claims against Chinese exporters easier to prove all the more because the exports in question consist mostly of basic products (for which Chinese exporters are likely to align their prices to those prevailing in foreign markets because there are no or small premia for differentiation). One way to minimize exposure to foreign antidumping would thus be to adopt uniform and moderate tariffs to reduce distortions in the domestic

Messerlin 115 production pattern (foreign antidumping investigators interpret such distortions as signs of dumping). Although average tariffs for Harmonized Tariff System sections give very imperfect information on the tariff structure (peak tariffs within each section are eroded by low tariffs), they suggest that tariff peaks in China are concentrated in sectors that are not antidumping-intensive activities, with the exception of textiles and clothing (see table 4). A uniform tariff policy may help China shift the composition of its exports away from antidumping-intensive sectors for another reason. Economies such as Hong Kong (China), Japan, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan (China) reduced their exposure to foreign antidumping measures by upgrading their exported products. One could even argue that foreign antidumping measures accelerated the economic development of these economies by inducing them to shift production more quickly to highly differentiated products in which they anticipated having comparative advantage. EU and U.S. Antidumping Echoing against China s Exports Capturing antidumping protection as a market segmentation strategy by a few large firms requires information at the product level, rather than at the aggregated section level of table 4. Table 5 provides such detailed information for EU and U.S. antidumping actions against China. More precisely, it lists EU and U.S. echoing cases against China, antidumping cases that targeted the same Chinese exports. The European Union and the United States are the top antidumping users in the absolute number of measures in force, and they are the two largest markets for Chinese exports (15 and 21 percent, respectively). Echoing cases (58 altogether) constitute 75 percent of antidumping cases initiated against Chinese exports by the United States and 68 percent by the European Union. These cases generally echoed each other within a year or less. All but three of these cases (cycles, hammers, and pocket lighters) resulted in antidumping measures of some kind. Such a large proportion of echoing cases and the similarity of their outcomes are signs that antidumping is a protectionist instrument that petitioners are using in a strategic way to segment the two largest world markets. Thus, assessment of the welfare costs of antidumping measures should take into account not only the severity of the measures (the high level of antidumping duties or the restrictiveness of quantitative restrictions) but also the dramatic reduction in competition in importing markets. These indirect welfare costs generated by antidumping-caused collusion compound the direct welfare costs generated by the antidumping duties. Examination of echoing cases also shows that U.S. antidumping duties are on average higher than EU duties: 104 percent compared with 38 percent. However, comparing the measures closely is difficult because of differences in regulations and the lack of sufficiently detailed information. For instance, some EU cases are terminated by the withdrawal of complaints by petitioners. The effective impact is hard to ascertain. It may be limited to the chilling effect

T ABLE 5. EU and U.S. Echoing Antidumping Cases against Chinese Products, 1980 99 Positive decisions Negative decisions Antidumping duties (%) Initiating country Dumping Year or group Product margin, EU (%) EU U.S. EU U.S. EU U.S. 1992 EU Antimony trioxide 43.2 noi 1991 U.S. Antimony trioxide N 1988 EU Barium chloride 50.1 D 25.8 1982 EU Barium chloride 75.0 Ds 1983 U.S. Barium chloride N 1983 U.S. Barium chloride A 14.5 1999 EU Brushes, hair ep 1992 U.S. Brushes, hair T 1986 EU Brushes, paint 100.0 Und 1992 EU Brushes, paint noi 1985 U.S. Brushes, paint A 127.1 1999 U.S. Brushes, paint 1994 EU Coumarin 50.0 Ds 1994 U.S. Coumarin A 160.8 1991 EU Cycles 30.6 D 30.6 1995 U.S. Cycles N 1984 EU Cycles, chains 45.0 Und 45.0 1999 EU Cycles, forks withdraw 1999 EU Cycles, frames withdraw 1996 EU Cycles, parts 30.6 D 30.6 1999 EU Cycles, wheels withdraw 1992 EU Ferrosilicon 49.7 D 49.7 1992 U.S. Ferrosilicon A 137.7 1995 EU Furfuryl alcohol withdraw 1994 U.S. Furfuryl alcohol A 45.3 1999 EU Glycine ep 1994 U.S. Glycine A 155.9 1985 EU Handtools: hammers no 1990 U.S. Handtools: hammers A 45.4 116

1994 U.S. Lighters, disposable N 1990 EU Lighters, pocket 16.9 D 16.9 1991 EU Magnesium oxide 27.7 Und 1994 U.S. Magnesium, alloy A 79.4 1994 U.S. Magnesium, pure A 108.3 1997 EU Magnesium, unwrought 31.7 D + und 31.7 1994 U.S. Manganese, metal A 143.3 1992 EU Manganese, unwrought withdraw 1996 U.S. Persulfates 1994 EU Persulfates, peroxodisulfates 110.1 D 83.3 1982 U.S. Polyester, cotton cloth A 36.2 1990 EU Polyester, yarn 23.5 D 23.5 1986 EU Potassium permanganate 94.5 D + und 28.0 1983 U.S. Potassium permanganate A 39.6 1984 EU Silicon carbide 31.5 Und 1993 U.S. Silicon carbide 1989 EU Silicon, metal 38.7 Ds 18.7 1991 EU Silicon, metal 178.0 Ds 1990 U.S. Silicon, metal A 139.5 1994 EU Steel, pipe or tubes fittings 58.6 D 58.6 1999 EU Steel, pipe or tubes fittings 49.4 D 49.4 1991 U.S. Steel, pipes A 182.9 1985 U.S. Steel, pipes N 1988 EU Tungstate, ammon. Para. 75.7 noi 1988 EU Tungsten, carbide 73.1 D + und 1988 EU Tungsten, metal powder noi 1991 U.S. Tungsten, ore A 151.0 1989 EU Tungsten, ores 50.3 D + und 1988 EU Tungstic, oxide and acid 85.8 D + und Total 58 Average margins and duties 59.2 29 15 5 7 37.8 104.5 Note: EU decisions: D = ad valorem duty; Ds = specific duty; Und = undertaking; with = withdrawal; noi = no injury; ep = expired deadline. U.S. decisions: A = affirmative; N = negative. Source: Bloningen (2001) for the United States and Official Journal for the European Union. 117

118 THE WORLD BANK ECONOMIC REVIEW, VOL. 18, NO. 1 on Chinese exporters, forced to export less, or at higher prices, or both, to limit the risk of facing new antidumping complaints. Or if withdrawals reflect merely a lack of cooperation by the domestic industry or a failure to get the minimum number of EU member states to support a proposal to impose measures, they may reflect the fact that EU petitioners have been able to impose quantity or price restraints on Chinese exports on a private basis with the corresponding full-fledged impact that is to be expected from these hidden restraints. III. CHINA S A NTIDUMPING E NFORCEMENT:ATTHECROSSROADS The following assessment of China s antidumping regulations and enforcement is provisional. It is constrained by the limited number of ongoing cases (a substantial number of cases are often needed for a robust assessment). China s Antidumping Regulations China adopted its first antidumping regulations on March 25, 1997 and the guidelines necessary for implementing the law later the same year. Following China s accession to the WTO, these old regulations were replaced by new regulations in January 2002, along with another set of guidelines (see G/ADP/ N/1/CHN1 and G/ADP/N/1/CHN2 at www.wto.org and Wang 2003). China s regulations follow the usual structure of antidumping legislation: proof of the existence and estimate of the magnitude of dumping and of material injury and proof of the causal relation between dumping and injury. However, they have four striking features. First, many details are left to the detailed guidelines or to case-by-case practice. Although this is common for countries that are adopting their first antidumping regulations, this lack of detail generates legal uncertainty. Second, China s regulations include all the (well-known) protectionist biases of the WTO antidumping provisions. Among these are use of the concept of a major proportion of the industry as the threshold level for accepting complaints (a condition that domestic monopolies, oligopolies, or cartels fit much more easily than competitive industries); possibility of ex officio initiation of cases by the Chinese authorities; screening of complaints by the antidumping office, exposing the office to strong and hidden pressures by vested interests; possibility of withdrawal by petitioners, facilitating private collusion between petitioners and defendants; cumulation of imports, facilitating demonstration of injury and widening the geographical scope of protective measures; recourse to constructed normal values when comparable prices are unavailable in the exporting country, enabling manipulation of costs and reasonable profit; a broad definition of the confidentiality of information, limiting the rights of defendants; the possibility of imposing undertakings as antidumping measures and the requirement that antidumping duties be borne by importers (the so-called no absorption provision); the possibility of imposing retroactive antidumping duties where there is a history of dumping (that is, recurrent antidumping complaints); and the

Messerlin 119 possibility of taking appropriate measures should foreign firms try to circumvent the antidumping measures. Third, prior to the 2003 government reform, coordination of the many administrative agencies involved in antidumping investigations was extremely complex. The Fair Trade Administration for Imports and Exports of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (MOFTEC) received complaints, decided which to accept, and was involved in the entire process, including investigation. The State Economic and Trade Commission joined MOFTEC in determining the existence of injury at the preliminary stage and conducting the final investigations. The Customs General Administration joined MOFTEC for some parts of the investigations. For the imposition of antidumping duties, MOFTEC presented its proposals to the Tariff Commission under the State Council, which made the decisions. The merger of the State Economic and Trade Commission and MOFTEC in early 2003 brought these two functions into one ministry. Fourth, the old regulations included the following Article 40: In the event that any country or region applies discriminatory antidumping or countervailing measures against the exports from the People s Republic of China, the People s Republic of China may, as the case may be, take counter-measures against the country or region in question. It is not known whether this provision led to any cases, but it clearly opened the possibility for China to use antidumping rules as a retaliatory instrument. Article 56 of the new regulations is only slightly more diplomatic: Where a country (region) discriminatorily imposes antidumping measures on the exports from the People s Republic of China, China may, on the basis of the actual situations, take corresponding measures against that country (region). Antidumping Enforcement by China According to information provided by MOFTEC for antidumping cases under the old regulations and on China s latest notification (G/ADP/N/105/CHN) to the WTO for the cases under the new regulations, 69 cases were initiated between 1997 and May 2003 (table 6). After a slow start in 1997 98, the number of cases increased rapidly, reaching 24 in 2002 and 11 for the first five months of 2003. It is unclear yet whether this simply reflects cases that were in the pipeline for a long time or whether China has begun to follow in the footsteps of the six top developing economy antidumping users (see section I) and will soon become another antidumping-intensive user, endangering its so far successful liberalization. Although it is too early to know whether China s initial antidumping measures are representative of future antidumping enforcement, a few observations are in order. First, antidumping measures have been taken in almost all cases, a very high percentage compared with what is generally observed (60 70 percent in industrial countries). Second, the level of the measures adopted by the Chinese authorities is relatively high, although it seems that the most recent measures are less severe than the ones taken under the old regulations. The main countries targeted are industrial and advanced developing economies not the

T ABLE 6. China s Antidumping Measures in Force and Investigations, as of June 30, 2003 Provisional antidumping duties (%) Definitive antidumping duties (%) Initiation year Country Product Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Cases initiated under old regulations 1997 Canada Newsprint 17.1 78.9 9.0 78.0 1997 Korea, Rep. of Newsprint 17.1 78.9 9.0 78.0 1997 United States Newsprint 17.1 78.9 9.0 78.0 1999 Russia Steel, cold-rolled silicon 11.0 73.0 0.6 62.0 1999 Korea, Rep. of Polyester film 21.0 72.0 13.0 46.0 1999 Japan Steel, cold-rolled stainless 4.0 75.0 17.0 58.0 1999 Korea, Rep. of Steel, cold-rolled stainless 4.0 75.0 17.0 58.0 1999 Germany (EU) Acrylates 24.0 74.0 0.0 0.0 1999 Japan Acrylates 24.0 74.0 31.0 69.0 1999 United States Acrylates 24.0 74.0 31.0 69.0 2000 U.K. (EU) Methylene chloride 7.0 39.0 6.0 39.0 2000 France (EU) Methylene chloride 28.0 75.0 28.0 75.0 2000 Germany (EU) Methylene chloride 67.0 67.0 66.0 66.0 2000 Netherlands (EU) Methylene chloride 10.0 58.0 9.0 57.0 2000 Korea, Rep. of Methylene chloride 7.0 28.0 4.0 28.0 2000 United States Methylene chloride 49.0 58.0 49.0 58.0 2001 Japan Polystyrene a a a a 2001 Korea, Rep. of Polystyrene a a a a 2001 Thailande Polystyrene a a a a 2001 Indonesia Lysine a a a a 2001 Korea, Rep. of Lysine a a a a 2001 United States Lysine a a a a 2001 Korea, Rep. of Polyester, chips a a a a Cases initiated under the new regulations 2001 Korea, Rep. of Polyester, staple fiber 4.0 48.0 2.0 48.0 2001 Korea, Rep. of Pet chips 6.0 52.0 5.0 52.0 2001 Indonesia Acrylates 11.0 24.0 11.0 24.0 120

2001 Korea, Rep. of Acrylates 11.0 20.0 2.0 20.0 2001 Malaysia Acrylates 13.0 38.0 4.0 38.0 2001 Singapore Acrylates 46.0 49.0 30.0 49.0 2001 Belgium (EU) Caprolactam 6.0 16.0 6.0 16.0 2001 Germany (EU) Caprolactam 28.0 38.0 28.0 38.0 2001 Netherlands (EU) Caprolactam 9.0 18.0 6.0 18.0 2001 Japan Caprolactam 5.0 21.0 5.0 18.0 2001 Russia Caprolactam 6.0 29.0 7.0 16.0 2002 Korea, Rep. of Polyester, film 0.0 0.0 2002 India Anhydride, purified 33.0 33.0 b b 2002 Japan Anhydride, purified 66.0 66.0 b b 2002 Korea, Rep. of Anhydride, purified 14.0 33.0 b b 2002 Japan Styrene butadiene 0.0 33.0 b b 2002 Korea, Rep. of Styrene butadiene 10.0 27.0 b b 2002 Russia Styrene butadiene 16.0 46.0 b b 2002 Kazakhstan Steel, cold-rolled products 21.0 48.0 b b 2002 Korea, Rep. of Steel, cold-rolled products 9.0 40.0 b b 2002 Russia Steel, cold-rolled products 9.0 29.0 b b 2002 Taiwan, China Steel, cold-rolled products 8.0 55.0 b b 2002 Ukraine Steel, cold-rolled products 12.0 22.0 b b 2002 Japan Polyvinyl chloride 32.0 115.0 b b 2002 Korea, Rep. of Polyvinyl chloride 10.0 76.0 b b 2002 Russia Polyvinyl chloride 34.0 82.0 b b 2002 Taiwan, China Polyvinyl chloride 10.0 27.0 b b 2002 United States Polyvinyl chloride 25.0 83.0 b b 2002 Japan Toluene 19.0 49.0 b b 2002 Korea, Rep. of Toluene 6.0 22.0 b b 2002 United States Toluene 23.0 28.0 b b 2002 Japan Phenol 7.0 144.0 b b 2002 Korea, Rep. of Phenol 10.0 10.0 b b 2002 Taiwan, China Phenol 7.0 20.0 b b 2002 United States Phenol 29.0 29.0 b b 2003 Germany (EU) Ethanolamine b b b b 2003 Iran Ethanolamine b b b b (Continued) 121

T ABLE 6. Continued Provisional antidumping duties (%) Definitive antidumping duties (%) Initiation year Country Product Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum 2003 Japan Ethanolamine b b b b 2003 Malaysia Ethanolamine b b b b 2003 Mexico Ethanolamine b b b b 2003 Taiwan, China Ethanolamine b b b b 2003 United States Ethanolamine b b b b 2003 European Union Chloroform b b b b 2003 India Chloroform b b b b 2003 Korea, Rep. of Chloroform b b b b 2003 United States Chloroform b b b b 69 All cases Average antidumping duty 17.2 43.4 9.8 23.7, Not available. a Status unknown. b Ongoing investigations. Source: China Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation, WTO Semi-annual report (G/ADP/N/105/CHN, August 22, 2003, www.wto.org). 122

Messerlin 123 same pattern observed for the other developing economy antidumping users. Third, the pattern for cases initiated since 2001 is closer to that observed for the other intensive antidumping users. This is most clearly illustrated by the steel cases (echoing the EU and U.S. safeguards) and the ethanolamine cases (observed in several other antidumping users). The increasingly similar product pattern suggests that China s antidumping enforcement is beginning to join the ongoing process of segmenting world markets through antidumping activity. It also raises issues of the progressive capture of China s trade policy by firms, similar to what is observed in the 10 major antidumping users. In this context it would be important to know whether petitioners are Chinese firms (private or state-owned) or firms with strong links with foreign firms (joint ventures, technical relations, vertical integration) that are experienced in the art of antidumping. IV. CHINA S O PTIONS IN THE WTO N EGOTIATIONS ON C ONTINGENT P ROTECTION In its antidumping enforcement, China needs to take into account an issue that the six top developing economy antidumping users have not had to deal with: China s WTO accession protocol incorporates specific provisions on antidumping and safeguards (for a legal analysis, see Vermulst 2000). Seemingly a handicap, these special provisions can be turned into an instrument of positive change. The special provision on antidumping could induce China to negotiate in the Doha Round a more economically sound interpretation of the specific provisions on antidumping. That could create strong incentives in China for restraining its own use of antidumping and for fighting for stricter WTO rules on antidumping. It could give China s trading partners strong incentives to ease their transition period of accession. The special provision on safeguards is more difficult to deal with. This provision is so much at odds with the spirit and rules of the WTO that its use will raise a large systemic risk for the entire WTO. Linking China s Effective Liberalization to Better Treatment of Its Exports by Antidumping Users China s protocol of accession allows its trading partners to use nonmarket economy status in their investigations against allegedly dumped Chinese exports for 15 years (until 2017). That status allows antidumping investigators to use proxies for estimating the home market prices or costs of Chinese exports in determining whether dumping took place. Such proxies make the existence of dumping much easier to prove than the rules for market economies, and they inflate the magnitude of the estimated antidumping margins compared to those (already high) imposed on market economies. A summary of the information available for 208 EU and U.S. antidumping cases initiated between 1995 and 1998 gives a sense of the intrinsic biases of the nonmarket economy procedure (table 7; Lindsey 1999; Messerlin 2000b). The

124 THE WORLD BANK ECONOMIC REVIEW, VOL. 18, NO. 1 T ABLE 7. Do Antidumping Investigations Really Look at Dumping? U.S. cases (1995 98) EU cases (1995 97) Basis of estimated normal values of exports Number cases examined Average dumping margins (%) Number cases examined Average dumping margins (%) Price comparisons only 5 3.2 8 22.7 Price comparisons and 33 14.2 33 24.4 constructed values Constructed values 20 25.1 12 25.1 Nonmarket economies 47 40.0 12 45.6 Best available facts 36 95.6 2 74.5 All cases examined 141 44.7 67 29.6 Source: Lindsey (1999) for U.S. cases; Messerlin (2000a) for EU cases. further from pure price comparisons the methodology used for estimating dumping margins, the higher are the estimated margins: from 3 percent (United States) and 22 percent (European Union) under pure price comparisons to 25 percent under various constructed-value methods. Use of nonmarket economy status is clearly linked to the highest dumping margins found (40 percent in the United States and 46 percent in the European Union). 3 It is almost impossible to eliminate a provision included in a country s protocol of accession. But during the Doha Round it may be possible to negotiate an economically sound interpretation of the use of the nonmarket economy status by WTO members. China and its trading partners have a common interest in establishing the strongest possible link between China s effective liberalization and elimination of the use of nonmarket economy status by foreign antidumping authorities. What is at issue is not the elimination of the nonmarket economy provision itself (impossible to obtain) but its effective use in the future. 4 The argument aims at mobilizing export interests in both China and the rest of the world during China s period of accession to the WTO. Chinese exporters, 3. For instance, under nonmarket economy status, it is possible to use industrial countries (such as the United States or Sweden) as reference countries for China. That introduces systemic errors about the product and the production process. For instance, it makes no sense to consider, without deep economic analysis, the calcium metal produced in small quantities by a U.S. monopolist for its own use as similar to the calcium metal produced by China and Russia in large quantities for sales on international markets. The U.S. product is likely to have characteristics in terms of quality and availability that make it very different from the Russian or Chinese calcium metal, and it is sold and bought in a market structure that is very different from the markets of its Russian and Chinese counterparts. In the same vein, trying to estimate production costs by combining input prices in industrial countries and input quantities used in a developing economy makes little economic sense. 4. EU and U.S. antidumping authorities have already adopted more liberal interpretations in some cases than the protocol allows. In the European Union, for example, the authorities have accepted individual treatment or market economy status with respect to some Chinese exports.

Messerlin 125 knowing that they will face less unfair treatment (no use of the nonmarket economy status) in foreign antidumping cases if China is effectively opening its markets in accordance with its accession protocol, will be motivated to monitor China s liberalization more closely and support it more strongly, including through stricter use of antidumping regulations. Foreign exporters, for their part, will support stricter use of antidumping regulations by their own authorities, especially with respect to use of nonmarket economy status, if they believe that they will get more effective and stable access to Chinese markets. This could be achieved by implementing the following simple rule. Foreign antidumping investigators will automatically grant market economy status to Chinese exporters of any product that meets the three following conditions.. The Chinese most-favored-nation tariff on the product involved is moderate (say, 10 percent or lower). This threshold tariff will be one of the core components of a more economically sound interpretation of China s nonmarket economy status to be agreed on during the Doha Round. It could be stable over time, or it could increase as time passes showing an increasing confidence in the ongoing liberalization process among China s trading partners.. No core gray-area measures are imposed on the product by the Chinese authorities. The list of core gray-area measures to be introduced in the interpretation agreement should also be negotiated during the Doha Round. The list should be short (say, specific tariffs, quantitative restrictions, and minimum prices), and only the listed measures should be considered part of the conditions.. State-owned monopolies shall not engage in distributing the competing foreign and domestic varieties of the product in question. Chinese stateowned monopoly producers are acceptable because as economic analysis shows, a protection granted exclusively by a moderate tariff eliminates the risk of monopoly power of the domestic sole producer. In 2001, 38 percent of China s tariff lines had ad valorem tariffs lower than 10 percent (see table 4). (The fact that the Chinese tariff schedule has only roughly 7,000 tariff lines suggests that it does not offer many opportunities to create narrow niches of protection for carefully defined tariff items.) Applying the three conditions would thus substantially reinforce the rights of Chinese exporters in the antidumping cases lodged in the two Harmonized Tariff System sections with the largest number of antidumping cases. (But China should take the initiative to improve the situation in the other antidumping-intensive Harmonized Tariff System sections, in particular in textiles and clothing.) These three conditions make it unlikely that Chinese exporters would dump except for economically sound reasons (differences in demand pattern, need to meet foreign demand, or to make Chinese products known in foreign markets). Thus, China s WTO trading partners should grant China at least the unconditional

126 THE WORLD BANK ECONOMIC REVIEW, VOL. 18, NO. 1 benefit of market economy status in any antidumping investigations faced by Chinese exports meeting these conditions. 5 Negotiations on improved implementation of nonmarket economy status for China should be as swift as possible. These conditions can easily be defined on a tariff line (Harmonized Tariff System) basis. For instance, China could notify the WTO on a regular basis of the tariff lines for which these conditions are met (this can easily be included in the general monitoring procedures for China s accession). Cross-notifications by China s trading partners could be added to the process, under the condition that they not slow the process. Finally, weaker variants of the suggestions could be considered, if necessary. For instance, the nonmarket economy status could be eliminated for notified goods only after, say, one year, instead of immediately. However, it is worth noting that any weakening of the suggested approach may have huge costs in terms of decreasing incentives for export interests in both China and the rest of the world to support the transition process of China s accession to the WTO. Stricter Rules on Antidumping The desire of China s chief trade negotiator, Long Yongtu, to introduce stricter rules on antidumping is a natural extension of the negotiations on use of the nonmarket economy status proposed here because of the focus on the antidumping rules faced by allegedly dumped exports from market economies. China s efforts to introduce stricter rules on WTO antidumping could follow either of two very different approaches. A cautious approach would be to table a series of proposals or to support those already tabled in Geneva for improving WTO-based antidumping regulations at the margin. For instance, the following suggestions, derived from proposals tabled in 1999 by the Swedish Kommerzkollegium (1999), could receive China s support:. Dumping should be the principal cause of material injury.. Double protection (for instance, antidumping measures imposed on top of quantitative restrictions) should not be allowed.. Measures should last five years at most (implying stronger limits to review).. Repeated initiations in a short period of time should not be allowed.. Cumulation of imports from different countries should be banned or severely restricted, unless they come from the same firms or subsidiaries of the same firms.. Aggregation of products under the one single product procedure should be severely restricted. 5. It could be argued that market forces in China for these relatively unprotected products could be distorted by Chinese regulations on inputs for such goods (subsidies, for instance). But there are WTO instruments for addressing such an argument (which could be applied to most China trading partners).