PROSPECTS FOR CONSTITUTIONALISM IN POST-COMMUNIST COUNTRIES Edited by Lèvent Gônenç Ankara University, Turkey MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS THEHAGUE / LONDON / NEW YORK
Vil CONTENTS List of Tables xiii Acknowledgements Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Conceptual Framework 1.1. Introduction 3 A Légal Approach to Constitutions 4 A Political Approach to Constitutions 5 Comparative or Case Studies 7 1.2. Basic Définitions 8 Political System, Régime, Constitution 13 1.3. Constitutional Stability and Change 16 1.4. Conclusions 24 Chapter 2. Political Culture 2.1. Introduction 27 The Concept of Culture 27 Criticism of the Civic-Culture Approach 28 The Concept of Political Culture 31 Religion and Economies as the Déterminants of Political Culture 33 Libéral Démocratie Political Culture 34 2.2. Pre-Communist Political Culture and Constitutionalism 35 Germanie and Slavic Tribal Kingdoms 36 Médiéval Constitutionalism in Europe 37 Comparing European Médiéval Constitutionalism with Constitutionalism in Russia and the Balkans 41 2.2.1. First Stage of the First Great Transformation of European Political Culture 43 Renaissance and Reformation 44 The Rise of the Nobility in Eastern Europe 45 Autocracy in Muscovite Russia 47 2.2.2. Second Stage of the First Great Transformation of European Political Culture 49 Constitutional Models in the Age of the Enlightenment and Their Application in Eastern Europe and Russia 51 Enlightened Absolutism in Habsburg Lands and Russia 52 The Polish Constitution of 1791 53 The Ages of Napoléon and Conservatism, and Their Impact on Eastern Europe 55 xv
viii Prospects for Constitutionalism in Post-Communist Countries 2.2.3. The Age of Nationalism 57 The Révolution of 1830 58 The Révolution of 1848 59 The Romanian Constitution of 1866 61 The Bulgarian Constitution of 1879 63 2.2.4. The Impact of Libéral Constitutionalism in Russia 65 The Russian Constitution of 1906 67 2.2.5. The Second Great Transformation of European Political Culture 72 2.2.6. Libéral Démocratie Constitutionalism in the Inter-War Years 72 2.2.7. Conclusions 77 2.3. Communist Political Culture and Constitutionalism 78 Communist Rejection of the Principle of Séparation of Powers 83 Communist Rejection of the Principle of the Rule of Law 84 2.4. Post-Communist Political Culture and Constitutionalism 87 Popular Support for Démocratie Norms and Principles and Conditions of Constitutional Changes within Régimes 88 Post-Communist Political Culture and Post-Communist Constitutions.. 97 2.5. Conclusions 101 Chapter 3. Constitution-Making 3.1. Introduction 103 Constitution-Making 103 3.2. Transition to Democracy 105 Révolution or Transition to Democracy 105 Modes of Transition 107 3.3. Constitution-Making 111 Elite Characteristics of Constitution-Making 111 Constituent or National Assemblies 113 Election of Constitution-Makers 113 Constitution-Making Style 115 Ratification of Constitutions 118 Timing of Constitution-Making 120 3.4. Transition to Democracy and Constitution-Making in Eastern Europe 122 3.4.1. Poland 125 The RTT and the Parliamentary Elections of 1989 128 The Parliamentary Elections of 1991 and the Adoption of the "Little Constitution" of 1992 129 The Parliamentary Elections of 1993 131 The Adoption of the Constitution of 1997 132 3.4.2. Hungary 134 The Résurgence of Civil Society 134 The RTT and the "September Pact" 135 The Parliamentary Elections of 1990 and 1994 136 3.4.3. Czechoslovakia 138 The Collapse of Communist Régime 138
Contents ix The RTT and the Parliamentary Elections of 1990 139 The Parliamentary Elections of 1992 and the Break-up of the Fédération 141 3.4.4. Bulgaria 143 Transition through Reform 143 The RTT 144 The 1990 Elections to the Constituent Assembly 144 3.4.5. Romania 146 The Collapse of Communist Régime in Romania 147 The Parliamentary Election of 1990 148 The Adoption of the Constitution of 1991 149 3.4.6. Albania 150 The End of Communist Rule 150 The Parliamentary Elections of 1991 and the Adoption of a Provisional Constitution 151 The Référendum of 1994 152 3.5. Conclusions 153 3.6. Transition to Democracy and Constitution-Making in the Former USSR... 155 3.6.1. USSR 157 3.6.2. The Russian Fédération 159 3.6.3. Baltic Republics 164 Estonia 165 Lithuania 169 Latvia 171 3.6.4. Ukraine 173 3.6.5. Transcaucasia 178 Armenia 178 Azerbaijan 182 Georgia 185 3.6.6. Moldova 187 3.6.7. Belarus 190 3.6.8. Central Asia 192 Kazakhstan 193 Kyrgyzstan 198 Tajikistan 202 Turkménistan 205 Uzbekistan 206 3.7. Conclusions 207 Chapter 4. Effectiveness 4.1. Introduction 209 4.2. Définition of Effectiveness 210 Functions of Constitutions 211 4.3. Rights and Liberties in Post-Communist Constitutions 215 Rights, Human Rights, Légal Rights and Constitutional Rights 216
x Prospects for Constitutionalism in Post-Communist Countries Libéral and Socialist Conceptions of Human Rights 218 4.3.1. Civil Liberties 222 An Example: The Right to Life 223 Other Civil Liberties in Post-Communist Constitutions 227 4.3.2. Political Rights 233 An Example: Freedom of Expression and Right to Information 234 Other Political Rights in Post-Communist Constitutions 242 4.3.3. Conclusions 244 4.3.4. Social and Economie Rights 245 4.3.5. Protection of Rights and Liberties atthe National Level 248 Constitutional Review 250 Structure and Authority of Constitutional Courts 252 Constitutional Courts and Other State Agencies 254 Ombudsman 259 4.3.6. The Gap Between the Constitution on Paper and Reality 261 4.3.7. International Mechanisms to Protect Individual Liberties 264 4.3.8. Constitutional Conditions of Effective Demo-Protection 267 4.4. Executive-Législative Relations in Post-Communist Constitutions 269 From Communist Constitutional Systems to Post-Communist Constitutional Systems 269 Defining the Types of Libéral Démocratie Constitutional Systems 270 Defining Constitutional Powers of Présidents 276 4.4.1. Post-Communist Pure Presidential Systems: Azerbaijan, Georgia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 280 Popular Election of the Président 281 Fixed Terms for Both the Président and the Assembly 282 The Accountability of the Cabinet to the Président 284 Législative, Appointive and Emergency Powers of Présidents 287 4.4.2. Post-Communist President-Parliamentary Systems: Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Turkménistan and Ukraine 291 The Popular Election of the Président 293 Fixed Term for the Président, No Fixed Term for the Assembly 294 Accountability of the Cabinet Both to the Président and the Assembly 297 Législative, Appointive and Emergency Powers of Présidents 300 4.4.3. Assessing the Presidential System 305 4.4.4. Post-Communist Premier-Presidential (Semi-Presidential) Systems: Poland, Romania, Lithuania and Moldova 308 Popular Election of the Président 309 Fixed Term for the Président, No Fixed Term for the Assembly 310 Cabinet's Accountability to the Assembly 312 Législative, Appointive and Emergency Powers of Présidents 314 4.4.5. Assessing the Semi-Presidential System 316
Contents xi 4.4.6. Post-Communist Parliamentary Systems: Albania, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia and Hungary 318 The Head of State (Président) and the Chief Executive (Prime Minister) areelected by the Assembly 318 The Cabinet Is Accountable to the Assembly 321 Fixed Term for the Président, No Fixed Term for the Cabinet and the Assembly 321 Législative, Appointive and Emergency Powers of Présidents 324 4.4.7. Post-Communist Parliamentary "with" Président Systems: Bulgaria and Slovakia 327 4.4.8. Assessing the Parliamentary System 329 4.4.9. Republic or Monarchy 331 4.4.10. Constitutional Conditions of Effective Demo-Power 333 4.5. Législature 340 4.6. The Référendum 347 4.7. Functions of Constitutions in Multi-National Political Systems 353 Légal Solutions to Ethno-National Problems 355 Political Solutions to Ethno-National Problems 357 Federalism in Russia 358 4.8. Conclusions 363 Chapter 5. Constitutional Change and Consolidation of Democracy 5.1. Causes of Constitutional Change 365 Forms of Constitutional Change 370 Processes of Constitutional Change 371 Actors of Constitutional Change 374 5.2. Constitutional Change and Consolidation of Democracy 377 Defining Consolidation of Democracy 377 Conclusions 380 Bibliography 383 Index 419 About the Author 437