Table&of&Contents& John Stuart Mill!...!1! Marx and Engels!...!9! Mary Wollstonecraft!...!16! Niccolo Machiavelli!...!19! St!Thomas!Aquinas!...!26! John Stuart Mill Background: - 1806-73 - Beyond his proper Victorian image, he was a notorious figure for his liberal social opinions. - Had a long relationship with Harriet Taylor (feminist/socialist). For years before her original husband died they were companions. - Mill a philosopher/social commentator - Public figure, journalist, public intellectual - MP for three years as an independent. - In 1866 became the first person in Parliament to call for women to be given the right to vote. Mill became a strong advocate of women's rights and such social reforms as labour unions and farm cooperatives. - James Mill, his father, was a highly educated figure who was friends with Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism (a set of ideas that say that we should assess political rules/legislation by one standard - how much happiness they produce). Until this period, this wasn t the standard way of thinking about the effect of policy decisions. Only with liberal revolution (where everyone is counted as morally worthwhile) was utilitarianism possible. - James Mill and Jeremy Bentham educated him according to utilitarian principles. Ideological education, with a focus towards a particular end learning of history, facts, sciences, logic, rational subjects. No fictions, novels, art, music things associated with the finer things in life which develop more emotional thinking. - Child prodigy shaped to be the modern utilitarian man. - 19/20 had a nervous breakdown under the weight of expectation. During this period of recovery he discovers poetry. Becomes convert to a more Romantic way of
thinking towards the cultivation of a human being emotionally more than intellectually. - Didn t give up utilitarianism, but in his political thinking he combines a utilitarian focus with a more Romantic argument about the importance of development as well rounded human beings. - Progressive development a powerful idea during the 19th century. - A defensive of human liberty for the modern age Political/social context: - Democracy becoming more of a reality, particularly in England. - Series of reforms extended suffrage to more people than ever before. - 1832 First Reform Act extended voting rights to the property-owning middle class. - 1867 Second Reform Act allowed urban working class men to vote. - In addition to this, there were more people with a basic level of education. Pamphlets and newspapers became widely circulated, thus allowing a proliferation of political ideas. - Industrialisation had led to a concentration of people in cities, which in turn created a greater level of social and political activism. From the early 19th century, riots against the monopoly control of food and power took place, led by the emerging middle class and working class making political demands. - At international level, mass migration begins. The beginning of the British Commonwealth saw Britain beginning to become more diverse, multiracial and multicultural than had ever previously been the case. - This vast increase in the electorate led to a need for new political theory to address changes in the nature of political systems ones with less focus on the role of the aristocracy and monarchy. - The French Revolution of 1789 triggered an influx of ideas about liberty and equality into Britain far more radical than those surrounding the 1688 Glorious Revolution. Break down of social classes and a greater regard for economic equality. - In the early-mid 19th century, the American Revolution of 1776 increasingly came to be viewed in Europe as an exciting political experience with the potential to be copied across Europe (relatively egalitarian political system). - In this context, JSM develops his views. Influence: - In shifting liberalism from its renaissance and early-modern origins he is generally considered as a political theorist to be the founder of modern liberalism. - His views are not entirely original, having their roots in the British empiricism of John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume, and in the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham. But he gave them a new depth, and his formulations were sufficiently articulate to gain for them a continuing influence among a broader public.
- His ideas have come to shape liberal democratic societies which are predominant throughout the western world and stress tolerance, individualism and equality of opportunity as core values. - His work constitutes a restatement of liberal principles that blends classical liberalism with Rousseau s focus on the importance of democracy and social Liberty. - Combines utilitarianism with romantic emphasis on human potential - Middle class philosopher rising democratic aspirations Tyranny of the Majority: - democratic demands of the older radicals had to be tempered with a concern for the dangers which it posed for individualism. - The greatest threat to individual liberty is no longer the state, but the power of public opinion (conformity). Uses famous term tyranny of the majority. Politics and law should be organised to prevent this. - social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression since, though not usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape, penetrating much more deeply into the details of life, and enslaving the soul itself. - Democracy might impoverish the culture of the community by imposing a single and inflexible set of mass values. This form of government has the virtue of fostering intelligence, common moral standards, and happiness; but where the citizens are passive it can be an instrument for tyranny - Advocated a voting system of proportional representation so that minority views could be represented. Power Relations: - Mainly concerned with power struggles between groups in society which are unequally situated in a power hierarchy.. - It is an analysis of politics in terms of structural relations. - No group voluntarily gives up rights there must be protests in order to give up their rights. - This analysis of power relations we see for the first time in Mill. - It shows us that liberal political thought has a radical potential underneath. - Mill argues that despotism is an acceptable form of government for those societies that are "backward", as long as the despot has the best interests of the people at heart, because of the barriers to spontaneous progress. Libertarianism: Mill s On Liberty addresses the nature and limits of power that can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual. Just as Marx defined history in terms of class struggle, Mill stated that the struggle between Liberty and Authority is the most conspicuous feature in the portions of history.
He came to the conclusion that society operates best when state involvement in human social affairs is kept to a minimal. The state should not be intrusive in matters concerning the household. - structured around basic idea that individuals are sovereign over themselves individual autonomy is the fundamental political value. Liberalism fosters individual freedom and autonomy. - sense of self worth should come from independence. - Taking away autonomy infantilizes people. The protection of liberty could be achieved in two ways. 1) by obtaining recognition of certain immunities, called political liberties or rights; 2) by establishment of a system of "constitutional checks". Doesn t argue that rights are somewhat natural, but rather that they are a means to an end (greater human happiness). The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. If governments adopt this outlook it will liberate a diversity of interests to the benefit of the individual and of all. Economic thoughts: - Mill believed that "equality of taxation" meant "equality of sacrifice. Progressive taxation penalized those who worked harder and saved more and was therefore "a mild form of robbery". - Mill accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds to justify them. - Within this revised work he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. - Mill promoted economic democracy in the capitalist economy whereby labourers would elect members of management. Mill believed that this was necessary to end what he deemed to be dictatorial management of capitalist firms and to establish liberty and equality in the capitalist economy. Mill's promotion of the right of labourers to elect management has been seen as support for economic corporatism - Society should not permit people to sell themselves into slavery Harm Principle Government or state can only interfere with individual freedom when someone s action causes harm to others.
- Before Mill, if something was done that was deemed to be against the common good or a set normative principle, the paternal state was deemed justified in regulating/preventing. - If the action is self-regarding, that is, if it only directly affects the person undertaking the action, then society has no right to intervene, even if it feels the actor is harming himself. - Mill explicitly states that "harms" may include acts of omission as well as acts of commission. Thus, failing to rescue a drowning child counts as a harmful act, as does failing to pay taxes, or failing to appear as a witness in court. All such harmful omissions may be regulated, according to Mill. - If we are not forced to make our own decisions and develop our own lives, we are essentially like children. In order to be an adult, we must be free to make mistakes. - In making mistakes, Mill is optimistically convinced that liberty will not be abused. Humans are perfectible, but can t learn by being lectured to by government. - Mill excuses those who are "incapable of self-government" from this principle, such as young children or those living in "backward states of society". Freedom of expression - Controversial issue at the time. - On Liberty has been described as an impassioned defence of free speech. - Mill argues that there should be as much as possible. - Freedom of Expression is a necessary condition for intellectual and social progress. - Opinions can be categorised into those that are a) true, b) false c) ambiguous. - if you don t allow wrong opinions to be expressed, people who hold true opinions will forget why it is they hold them. It is necessary to continually re-examine and re-affirm beliefs in the process of debate to prevent them becoming little more than dogma. It s almost as bad to believe something because you have been told it as it is to believe in something untrue. - We can never be sure, he wrote, that the opinion we are endeavouring to stifle is a false opinion, and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evil still - It is terrible to believe in something that is simply the majority view. The unexamined life is not worth living you might as well be an animal. - Bad ideas may gain popularity if they have a good advocate. - When good ideas happen they happen to 1 or 2 people. - Need to support their freedom to do this. These ideas may be the status quo in 50 years time. - All good things which exist are the fruits of originality - ideas should be allowed to compete in the marketplace of ideas. - Thus the rejection of censorship and paternalism is intended to allow the greatest ability for the greatest number to develop and exercise their deliberative and rational capacities.