Causes of the Scientific Revolution The development of new technology and scientific theories became the foundation of the Scientific Revolution.
Causes of the Scientific Revolution (cont.) By mastering Greek, European humanists were able to read newly discovered works by the philosophers Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato. New technology such as the telescope and microscope enabled individuals to make new scientific discoveries. The printing press helped spread new ideas quickly and easily.
Causes of the Scientific Revolution (cont.) Advances in mathematics made calculations easier and played a key role in scientific achievements. Advances in algebra, trigonometry, and geometry allowed scientists to demonstrate proofs for their theories.
Scientific Breakthroughs Scientific discoveries expanded knowledge about the universe and the human body.
Scientific Breakthroughs (cont.) Astronomers of the Middle Ages constructed a model of the universe called the Ptolemaic system after the astronomer Ptolemy. The Ptolemaic system is geocentric because it places Earth at the center of the universe. During the Scientific Revolution, Nicolaus Copernicus offered the heliocentric theory, which put the sun at the center of the universe.
Scientific Breakthroughs (cont.) Johannes Kepler added to this theory by confirming the central position of the sun and adding information about the elliptical orbits of the planets. Galileo Galilei used a telescope to observe mountains on the moon, sun spots, and new moons in the heavens. His ideas were revolutionary and brought him into conflict with the Catholic Church.
Scientific Breakthroughs (cont.) Isaac Newton explained how the planets continually orbit the sun. Central to his argument was the universal law of gravitation. Newton s ideas created a new picture of the universe. He is often considered the greatest genius of the Scientific Revolution.
Scientific Breakthroughs (cont.) Breakthroughs in medicine occurred as scientists learned about human anatomy from dissections. New ideas about organs and blood flow replaced older fallacious understandings. In chemistry, Robert Boyle conducted controlled experiments on the properties of gases. Antoine Lavoisier invented a system for naming chemical elements that is still used today.
Women s Contributions Women scientists faced obstacles to practicing what they had learned.
Women s Contributions (cont.) Despite overwhelming obstructions from male-dominated societies, women also contributed to the Scientific Revolution. Margaret Cavendish wrote against the new ideas that man could use science to master the natural world. Maria Winkelmann made contributions to astronomy, including the discovery of a comet.
Philosophy and Reason Scientists came to believe that reason is the chief source of knowledge.
Philosophy and Reason (cont.) René Descartes was a French philosopher who is known as the father of rationalism. Rationalism is based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge. An English philosopher named Francis Bacon developed the scientific method.
Philosophy and Reason (cont.) The scientific method was a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence that was crucial to the evolution of science. Bacon believed that scientists should not rely on the ideas of ancient authorities, but rather reach conclusions by using inductive reasoning.
Path to the Enlightenment Eighteenth-century intellectuals used the ideas of the Scientific Revolution to reexamine all aspects of life.
Path to the Enlightenment (cont.) The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that attempted to apply reason to human behavior. The ideas of the Enlightenment would be influential for political and social reform. John Locke was an Englishman who argued that humans were born with a blank mind and were influenced by experiences in their environment.
Path to the Enlightenment (cont.) Enlightenment thinkers thought that by applying the scientific methods of Isaac Newton to the natural laws that governed human society, an ideal society was possible.
Ideas of the Philosophes The philosophes wanted to create a better society.
Ideas of the Philosophes (cont.) The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known by the French term philosophe. Philosophes were social reformers who came from the middle class and nobility of European society. Philosophes wanted to change the world and often disagreed about how to do this.
Ideas of the Philosophes (cont.) Influential Philosophes: Montesquieu French noble Wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748) about governments Montesquieu identified three kinds of government (republics, despotisms, and monarchies). Argued for a separation of powers within the government
Ideas of the Philosophes (cont.) Voltaire Lived in Paris and gained wealth and fame from his writings In his 1763 work Treatise on Toleration he argued for religious toleration. Was a proponent of deism, a philosophy based on reason and natural law
Ideas of the Philosophes (cont.) Diderot Studied at the University of Paris and was a writer Wrote a 28-volume Encyclopedia series between 1751 and 1772 The Encyclopedia spread Enlightenment ideas.
New Social Sciences The belief in logic and reason promoted the beginnings of social sciences.
New Social Sciences (cont.) Adam Smith, a Scottish philosopher, along with Physiocrats, studied natural economic laws that governed human society. Their work led to the modern discipline of economics. Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, in which he asserted that the state should not interfere with economic matters by imposing regulations on the economy.
New Social Sciences (cont.) Smith s contention that the state should not interfere with the economy is known by the French term laissez-faire. In a time when most European court systems dealt only in cruel punishments, Cesare Beccaria argued that punishment should not be cruel. In his work On Crimes and Punishments, Beccaria reasoned that cruel and capital punishment did not deter others from committing crimes.
The Spread of Ideas From the upper classes to the middle classes and from salons to pulpits, the ideas of the Enlightenment spread.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.) One of the most famous Enlightenment philosophes was Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who lived in Paris and wrote about government. Rousseau wrote The Social Contract, in which the society agrees to be governed by its general will. A social contract is an agreement between the government and the governed.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.) Because the general will represents what is best for the entire community, Rousseau argued that liberty could be achieved if people were forced to follow the general will of the society. Rousseau also wrote that education should foster children s natural instincts and that women should receive education on how to be mothers and wives.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.) The English writer Mary Wollstonecraft is often viewed as the founder of the women s rights movement in Europe and America. Wollstonecraft debunked the idea of male domination by comparing it to the relationship between monarchs and subjects, which many Enlightenment thinkers claimed was wrong.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.) The Enlightenment witnessed the growth of publishing and reading. Books were written for a literate middle class, and many newspapers and magazines appeared. The first daily newspaper was published in London in 1702. Enlightenment ideas were also spread though the salons of upper-class homes.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.) Although many of the philosophes attacked the Church, most were still Christians and religion was central to European life. In England, John Wesley began a new movement known as Methodism. Wesley stressed hard work and religious contention with his preaching.
Enlightenment and Absolutism Philosophes believed that, in order to reform society based on Enlightenment ideals, people should be governed by enlightened rulers.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.) The idea of enlightened absolutism refers to the reaction of European rulers to the ideas spread by the Enlightenment. In Prussia, King Frederick William maintained a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers and a large, formidable army. Many of the officers of the Prussian army were landholders and were very loyal to the king.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.) Frederick II, known as Frederick the Great, was a well-educated and cultured monarch. Frederick the Great enlarged the army, ended most torture, granted limited free speech and press, and religious tolerance. However, he did not end serfdom or change the rigid social structure of Prussia.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.) Maria Theresa took control of the Austrian Empire in 1740. While she was not open to the Enlightenment ideas, she did work to improve the lives of the serfs. Her son, Joseph II, attempted reform by freeing the serfs, enacting religious tolerance, and abolishing the death penalty.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.) The reforms of Joseph II were unpopular with the Austrian nobles and the Catholic Church, and most of his reforms were undone by his successors. In Russia, Catherine the Great ruled from 1762 to 1796. She was familiar with works of the philosophes and seemed to favor enlightened reforms.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.) After consideration of these ideas, Catherine determined that the reforms would upset the nobility too much and ended a peasant revolt without freeing the serfs. While the enlightened absolutist monarchs of the eighteenth century spoke about reforms, they were primarily interested in using their power to collect taxes to build armies, wage wars, and gain more power.
The Seven Years War The Seven Years War (1756 1763) became global as new alliances were formed and as war broke out in Europe, India, and North America.
The Seven Years War (cont.) After the Austrian emperor Charles VI died in 1740, Frederick II of Prussia invaded Austrian Silesia, beginning the Austrian War of Succession (1740 1748). France seized Madras and the Austrian Netherlands, while Britain seized Louisbourg in North America. In 1748, a treaty returned all of the land except Silesia. The refusal of Prussia to return Silesia to Austria set the stage for the Seven Years War (1754 1763.)
The Seven Years War (cont.) War in Europe: France, Austria, and Russia allied against Prussia and Great Britain. Frederick II of Prussia fought against the French, Austrian, and Russian forces. Prussia faced defeat until sympathetic Peter III of Russia withdrew Russian forces and the war became a stalemate.
The Seven Years War (cont.) All territories were returned except for Silesia, which Prussia kept. War in India: British forces defeated the French, forcing France to relinquish all claims in India to Great Britain.
The Seven Years War (cont.) War in North America: France controlled Canada, the Ohio River Valley, the Mississippi River, and Louisiana but all were thinly populated. France had support from the Native Americans.
The Seven Years War (cont.) Great Britain had established colonies along the eastern seaboard of North America and had an advantage in population. Despite initial victories on land, the French navy was defeated and the war turned in Britain s favor.
The Seven Years War (cont.) The Treaty of Paris (1763) granted the French Canada, the lands up to the Mississippi, and Spanish Florida to Britain, and Spain received Louisiana.
Enlightenment and Arts The eighteenth century was a great period in the history of European architecture, art, music, and literature.
Enlightenment and Arts (cont.) Many European rulers emulated Louis XIV and his palace at Versailles by building grand palaces. Balthasar Neumann, one of the greatest architects of the time, masterfully integrated secular and religious characteristics in his buildings. In art, rococo became the most popular style. Rococo was very secular and emphasized charm, grace, and gentle action.
Enlightenment and Arts (cont.) Antoine Watteau painted elegant scenes of upper-class gentlemen and women living a life of pleasure and joy. Giovanni Battista Tiepolo painted frescos of vivid pastels and airy scenes that adorn the walls of churches and palaces. Two of the greatest composers of all time, Bach and Handel, perfected the baroque musical style.
Enlightenment and Arts (cont.) Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart were innovators who wrote classical music. In literature, Henry Fielding wrote novels about people without morals who survive on their wit. His characters reflect real types of people in eighteenth-century England.
Britain and the American Revolution Drawing on the theory of natural rights, the Declaration of Independence declared the colonies to be independent of Britain.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.) George I became King of England and started the Hanoverian dynasty of British monarchs. Robert Walpole was the head of the cabinet in Parliament who strove to have peaceful foreign relations. However, an expanding middle class and trading economy favored British expansion.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.) The colonists in North America had grown accustomed to governing their lives economically and politically. Following the Seven Years War, Britain wanted new revenues from the colonies and imposed the Stamp Act, which was very unpopular with the colonists.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.) The British enacted other policies to tighten control of its American colonies. The colonies organized the First Continental Congress in 1774 to discuss taking up arms against the British. In 1775 fighting began between the British and American rebels. The Second Continental Congress acted as a government, and George Washington led the army.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.) One year later, in July 1776, the Second Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson, and the Revolutionary War had officially begun. France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic entered the war against Great Britain as well. Following the surrender of General Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781, the British decided to end the war.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.) The Treaty of Paris of 1783 recognized American independence and granted American control of the land east of the Mississippi River. Land Claims After the American Revolution, 1783
The Birth of a New Nation The formation of the United States convinced many eighteenth-century philosophes that a new age and a better world could be created.
The Birth of a New Nation (cont.) The first government under the Articles of Confederation (1781) was ineffective and did not give the government the power it needed to deal with the nation s problems. A new government was established as a federal system under the United States Constitution, in which the national government and the state governments shared power.
The Birth of a New Nation (cont.) The Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution in ten amendments that guaranteed the rights of citizens. Many of the rights in the Bill of Rights were derived from the philosophes and embodied Enlightenment ideals.
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION The Scientific Revolution changed the way Europeans viewed their world. Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo provided new explanations of the universe. Breakthroughs in chemistry and medicine changed the understanding of human anatomy. Women scientists made important advances, but faced many obstacles.
THE ENLIGHTENMENT Philosophes applied the scientific method to examine government, justice, and religion. The ideas of the Enlightenment became a force for social reform. Some rulers considered governing by Enlightenment principles but ultimately were more interested in maintaining power. Architecture, art, music, and literature were influenced by Enlightenment ideas.
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION American colonists revolted against British rule. France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic helped the American colonies win independence. Many believed the American Revolution confirmed Enlightenment principles.