6th European Ministerial Conference on Equality between Women and Men Stockholm, 8-9 June 2006 COUNCIL OF EUROPE CONSEIL DE L EUROPE MEG-6 (2006) 5 Human rights and economic challenges in Europe gender equality Estonia Report presented by the national delegation
Report presented by the delegation of Estonia I. Gender equality as an integral part of human rights in a democratic society Legal framework and gender equality policies, their implementation and monitoring The Republic of Estonia acceded to the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women in 1991. Estonia has ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and several other UN conventions. Estonia has also ratified a number of ILO conventions, among them convention No. 100 concerning equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value (1996). As a member of the Council of Europe, Estonia has ratified the major instruments dealing with human rights issues, the most relevant of which concerning equal treatment of men and women are the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, its Protocols and the Revised European Social Charter. Estonia has signed Protocol No. 12 to the ECHR. In 2000, with the amendment to the Law on the Government of the Republic, the Ministry of Social Affairs was attributed three additional functions: promoting equality between men and women, co-ordination of these activities and preparation of relevant draft laws. The Gender Equality Act (GEA) entered into force on 1 May 2004. The purpose of the act is to ensure equal treatment for men and women and to promote gender equality as a fundamental human right and a public good in all areas of social life. The act provides for the prohibition on discrimination based on sex in private and public sectors and also the right to claim compensation for damage. The Act can be qualified as progressive legislation and as a promoting factor for gender mainstreaming since it commits all administrative levels to apply gender mainstreaming strategy. It obliges also educational and research institutions and employers to promote equal treatment for men and women. The act defines the concepts of direct and indirect discrimination, gender equality, equal treatment and sexual harassment and establishes the rule of shared burden of proof. It allows certain positive measures to promote the situation of representatives of the sex that is in a less advantageous position compared to the other in the relevant field. An independent institution of the Gender Equality Commissioner handling the complaints about gender discrimination was created under the GEA. The act also stated the duties of Ministry of Social Affairs upon implementation of Gender Equality Act. Moreover, an advisory body for the government Gender Equality Council will be established under the act. The ministerial regulations for project applications from ESF provide that the inclusion of gender impact will be a mandatory criterion in project application for all measures. With regard to general awareness of the population about legislation, it is important to point out that all legal acts are accessible through the Internet. Also the reports for implementation of international conventions are available online. Measures aimed at promoting equality between women and men have formed part of the Government s action plan since 1998. Under the cross-cutting issues section, the Ministry of Social Affairs Strategic Action Plan for the period of 2000-2010 (approved in April 2001) incorporates integration of the principle of gender equality into all national policies, programs and projects as a long-term objective (until 2010). The Estonian National Development Plan for the Implementation of the EU Structural Funds SPD 2004-2006 contains a gender aspect. Together with the European Commission, the Government of Estonia prepared a Joint Inclusion Memorandum where long-term goals for gender equality activities were set. Based on JIM, the National Action Plan for Social Inclusion for 2004-2006 was prepared, planning specific actions for fighting violence against and trafficking in women. The National Employment Action Plans have been based on the European Employment Strategy. The Employment Guidelines represent a set of objectives, which, until 2003, were grouped under four pillars (employability, entrepreneurship, adaptability, equal opportunities) together with horizontal objectives (including gender mainstreaming). The main objectives for the promotion of equal opportunities in the National Employment Action Plan were: the creation of employment opportunities and increasing the employment of women; reconciling work and family life; supporting women as entrepreneurs; and increasing the competitiveness of their businesses. The equal opportunities component of the National Employment Action Plan for the years 2001 and 2002 was strongly uphold by the international four-year (1999-2003) ILO programme More and Better Jobs for Women which was specifically implemented in Valga County. The programme, coordinated by the Bureau of Equality of the Ministry of Social Affairs and funded mainly by the Government of Finland, aimed at improving women s employment in quantitative as well as qualitative terms. It focused on a job-creation via business creation and Report presented by the delegation of Estonia 1
improvement of the status of women. A sub-goal of the programme was to develop a strategic model for improving employment, particularly women s entrepreneurship in rural areas. The programme provided comprehensive measures for women s increased legal literacy, self-confidence building, and partnerships between local authorities, social partners and women s networks for two counties. As from 2002, there have been a small number of smaller-scale female entrepreneurship promotion projects for rural women. The projects have a strong element of regional and international networking; also through mentorship programmes and participation in international exhibitions and trade fairs, which help to integrate Estonian female entrepreneurs into the international community of businesswomen. Estonia is elaborating a gender mainstreaming policy alongside the traditional gender equality policy. The process of learning, training and co-operation has been considered of utmost importance with regard to mainstreaming policies. These processes include: training of gender equality specialists of different fields and levels; strengthening of state and nongovernmental structures for gender mainstreaming; co-operation with Nordic and Baltic states aimed at supporting gender mainstreaming into different policies and activities on local, regional and national level; implementation of international projects supporting networking between researchers, women s organisations and information dissemination. According to the Government action plan for 2007-2013, training and technical assistance is oriented towards achieving readiness to integrate the equality principle into all action plans and policies in accordance with the Treaty of Amsterdam; elimination of trafficking in women is foreseen according to the relevant strategic action plan. As mentioned before, according to the Gender Equality Act, all state and local authorities and institutions are obliged to use gender equality mainstreaming strategy. Training courses for the civil servants and NGOs have been held since 1997. Civil servants of different ministries and various government agencies have been offered several seminars and training courses with the aim to raise their awareness of the gender equality and gender mainstreaming. Groups of civil servants have participated in study visits to Sweden and Denmark to familiarise themselves with the national machinery for gender equality in the Nordic countries. In the first gender mainstreaming project that was made under the European Union Gender Equality Programme Gender Impact Assessment as a Core Measure for Gender Mainstreaming (September 2003-September 2004) the goal of the Ministry of Social Affairs as the project promoter was to improve the understanding of gender equality and the dual-track approach to achieve equality and to develop specific methods and tools, in particular gender impact assessment, for the promotion of gender mainstreaming in Estonia. The first manual for Gender Impact Assessment was compiled by the Ministry of Social Affairs. The Phare Twinning Project Development of Administrative Capacity of National Authorities in the Field of Gender Mainstreaming (July 2004- December 2005) took place between the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany and the Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs. To achieve the goal of promoting gender mainstreaming, seventeen trainers were trained in gender issues, in gender mainstreaming and in methods and tools for its implementation; training sessions were held to transfer basic gender mainstreaming expertise to civil servants and local government officials; gender mainstreaming implementation strategy was defined and an Internet-based centre of expertise created. 1 In order to raise general public awareness on gender equality, in co-operation with the UN Population Fund a review Different but Equal was published in 2003, which briefly and clearly presents the basic terminology and problems related to equality of men and women. In 2005 the review was also published in Russian. 1. The centre of expertise can be found in the Internet at http://gender.sm.ee/esileht.php. National institutional mechanisms The Gender Equality Bureau was established in December 1996. In June 2000 the ministry was attributed three additional functions under law: promoting the equality of men and women, coordination of these activities and preparation of relevant draft laws. From 1 January 2004 the unit operates under the authority of the Deputy Secretary General of Social Affairs as the Gender Equality Department. The staff of the Department consists of five civil servants, supported by analysts working in the policy information and analysis departments. The Department deals with all matters concerning gender equality, including drafting relevant legislation and policies, raising awareness, co-ordinating the implementation of gender mainstreaming, and co-operating with the academic community in producing research on gender issues. Additionally, the Social Policy Information and Analysis Department within in the Ministry of Social Affairs is preparing different indicators for measuring the situation of gender equality in Estonia, co-ordinating the research activities and analysis of the disaggregated data. The Working Group for Promoting Gender Equality was established in February 2002. It was headed by the Minister for Social Affairs and composed of the representatives of different ministries. Its task was to develop a strategic development plan for eliminating the inequality of men and women and integrating gender equality into the action plans, programs and projects of state institutions in different areas. The working group was rearranged into the Interministerial Committee for Promoting Gender Equality in 2003. The primary task of the committee is still to develop a national action plan on gender equality and gender mainstreaming. The members of the committee act also as ministerial focal points for gender equality issues. The establishment of the Gender Equality Commissioner (supervisory and complaints handling body) and the Coun- 2 6th European Ministerial Conference on Equality between Women and Men
cil of Gender Equality (advisory body for the government) under Gender Equality Act is continuing. At the beginning of October 2005 the Gender Equality Commissioner was appointed and has already received several complaints, but the institution as such will still need to be developed in order to guarantee the necessary effectiveness of the work. Pursuant to Gender Equality Act the Commissioner monitors compliance with the requirements of the GEA, accepts applications from persons and provides expert opinions, analyses the effect of laws on the status of men and women in society, makes proposals to the Government of the Republic and to government agencies, as well as to local governments and their agencies, regarding alterations and amendments to legislation, advises and informs the Government of the Republic, government agencies and local government agencies on issues related to implementation of the Gender Equality Act, and shall take measures to promote gender equality. From 2004 everyone has the right of recourse to the Chancellor of Justice in order to have his or her rights protected by filing a petition to request verification whether or not a state agency, local government agency or body, legal person in public law, natural person or legal persons in private law performing public duties adheres to the principles of observance of the fundamental rights and freedoms and to the principles of sound administration. In case a person finds that a natural person or legal person in private law has discriminated against him/her on the basis of sex, s/he has a right of recourse to Chancellor of Justice for the conduct of conciliation procedure. Gender-specific statistics are being gathered by the Statistical Office of Estonia. Several research-related institutions, e.g. the Gender studies group in the University of Tartu, the Estonian Women s Studies and Resource Centre (ENUT), the Estonian Open Society Institute, etc., are working on gender equality issues. The Estonian Women s Studies and Resource Centre (ENUT) has become an active promoter of gender equality in Estonia since its establishment in 1997. In the beginning, the aim of this centre was to become a research centre open to the public as a library and an information centre. Besides fulfilling this aim the centre has arranged numerous seminars and conferences, supported and participated in many projects at both domestic and international level, run a public library in the field of gender studies and feminist literature. Two national NGOs (Estonian Women s Associations Round Table and Estonian Women s Chain of Co-operation) were established in 2003 to represent Estonia in the co-operation with the European Women s Lobby. Both of the organisations are active in promoting gender equality. In 2001, for the first time a sum of 175 000 EEK was allocated from the governmental budget for supporting women s networks. From 2003 to 2004 the allocated sum in the national budget was 400 000 EEK for supporting networking between women s NGOs and their activities in the field of gender equality. In 2006 the total sum will be 724 000 EEK as MoSA will organise the project competition together with the Open Estonia Foundation. The Open Estonia Foundation will co-finance the competition with 362 000 EEK. The topic of the projects for 2006 is More women into politics. The competition is no longer strictly addressed to women s organisations. The overall aim is to encourage all organisations (youth organisations, environmental organisations, etc.) interested in promoting gender equality, to take part in the competition. Protection of women against violence In 1999, as an initiative of the Baltic- Nordic working group for gender equality co-operation, the situation of family violence and violence against women was mapped in Estonia. It was noted that due to lack of information, the general public, health care specialists and police officers did not fully realise the seriousness of the problem. The Ministry of Social Affairs carried out a representative survey of violence against women in 2001. The results of the survey were presented at 16 training sessions with 800 participants, among them representatives of the police, social and medical workers; specialists engaged in the victim support system; women s organisations and others. On the basis of the results of the survey, a draft national strategy to combat violence against women was prepared. Elaboration of a co-operation scheme between the police and social workers has been initiated in order to jointly launch preventive activities and to provide support to victims. Moreover, the book Silenced Voices, containing interviews with victims, officials and specialists as well as articles by outstanding scientists, was published. A training programme for police officers has been launched aiming at helping them to recognise instances of family violence; to more effectively restrain persons committing acts of violence; and to provide assistance to victims. Two large-scale quantitative research projects have been conducted on prevalence, causes and consequences of domestic violence in Estonia so far (Estonian Open Society Institute 2001, 2003, 2005). However, the need for further research (both quantitative and qualitative) remains. The cost of violence, changes in people s attitudes, motives of perpetrators and other aspects of violence, still need further studying. The first Shelter for women victims of domestic violence was established in Tartu in December 2002. Today Estonia has 3 NGOs that are providing shelter service for victims of domestic violence in Tallinn, Tartu and East Estonia. Additionally, some victims find help in shelters for child and mother, but the need for a greater number of shelters remains. In some counties, unfortunately, the possibility of getting help is minimal. Similarly, there are currently no services for perpetrators. The NGO Estonian Social Programmes Centre conducted a large-scale public campaign, When love hurts, against domestic violence in 2005. The centre also runs a women s support group network that provides counselling for women who have suffered from domestic violence. In 2005 a pilot support group for violent men was launched. The NGO Victim Support, which started its work in 1994, provides support services for victims with the help of approximately 100 voluntary support persons. According to the Victim Assistance Act (passed 2003), a victim assist- Report presented by the delegation of Estonia 3
ance service is a public service aiming at maintaining or enhancing the ability to cope of persons who have fallen victim to negligence, mistreatment or physical, mental or sexual abuse. Thirty-five victim assistance co-ordinators started work in 2005. The current priority of the victim assistance service is domestic violence. In 2006 Estonia will develop a national action plan on domestic violence that will come into force in 2008. The overall aim of the action plan is to reduce the prevalence of domestic violence. The action plan will address different fields of action prevention (awareness raising, training courses for different target groups), data gathering (research, statistics), legislation, services (for different target groups), co-operation between different institutions. Action against trafficking in human beings: prevention, protection and prosecution Estonia participated in the international STOP-programme financed by the European Union, which lasted from 1998 to 2002. The programme was aimed at analysing reasons for prostitution, to observe problems related to prostitution both nationally and internationally, and to gather and distribute information about the phenomena of commercial sex. The programme sought to establish cooperation with the police and authorities of different European Union member states. In the beginning of 2002, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) started its information campaign to raise awareness about trafficking in human beings. IOM conducted research on public awareness on trafficking in human beings, and carried out a pilot project Research, Information and Legislation on Trafficking in Women in the Baltic States. The research covered legislation on trafficking, social aspects of prostitution/trafficking in women and public awareness about the problem. In cooperation with NGOs, IOM provided counselling for job seekers. In 2002-2003, the Nordic-Baltic Campaign against Trafficking in Women was carried out simultaneously in the eight Nordic and Baltic countries. The goal of the Estonian campaign was to start discussion about the problems surrounding the issue of trafficking in women and prostitution, and to start changing prevailing attitudes. Furthermore, the aim was to map the situation in Estonia regarding trafficking in women, and to raise the awareness of selected target groups about trafficking in women and prostitution. Research was done during the project, as well as lecturing all around Estonia to different target groups, and special two-day training course was created and carried out for teachers and youth workers. Essay competitions were held for young people to raise their awareness on the subject. The Estonian campaign co-operated closely with IOM, the Legal Information Centre for Human Rights, the AIDS Prevention Centre, the NGO Living for Tomorrow and the Estonian Women s Studies Centre, who also launched activities against trafficking in human beings. In 2003 a research project on prostitution, its causes and effects was carried out in the Baltic states and in the St Petersburg area, co-ordinated by the Estonian Women s Studies and Resource Centre and the Gender Equality Bureau of the Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs. The aim of the study project was to present the views of public opinion leaders about prostitution in the Baltic states and north-west Russia and on that basis to encourage a comprehensive and public discussion about the positive and negative aspects of different prostitution policies. In 2004-2005 the project Drugs, prostitution, trafficking from a gender perspective was held in Estonia, and in the Baltic states and north-west Russia seminars and conferences were organised to raise awareness on trafficking issues and its connections with other social problems. Research about Combating Trafficking in Persons in Estonia: Experts Opinions about Problems and Solutions 1 was conducted in 2004 in co-operation with the Estonian Women s Studies and Resource Centre and the Nordic Council of Ministers. The project aimed at finding out what obstacles specialists dealing with the topic of trafficking in persons face, and what could be done to improve 1. Katri Eespere, Combating Trafficking in Persons in Estonia: Expert Opinions about Problems and Solutions; Estonian Women s Studies and Resource Centre and Nordic Council of Ministers, Tallinn 2004, available on-line in English at http://gender.sm.ee/ failid/eksperdid_eng.pdf. the situation and to make the fight against trafficking in persons in Estonia more efficient. In 2005 activities against trafficking continued. Training sessions were held for social workers and victim support specialists, lectures were carried out for students, local government officials, etc. In autumn 2004 the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW), based in USA, has initiated the project The Baltic Network to Challenge the Legalization and Decriminalization of Prostitution Industries and Focusing on the Demand jointly with the Estonian Women s Studies and Resource Centre (ENUT). The activities of the project are based on the new UN trafficking protocol the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. 2 There is an ongoing EQUAL project that has set its aim to integrate women previously involved in prostitution into the labour market. The target group involves also victims of trafficking and relevant officials. For the period 2006-2009, Estonia has compiled National Development Plan against Trafficking in Human Beings. The Ministry of Justice is responsible for the co-ordination and implementation of the development plan. The plan gives guidelines for prevention of trafficking, rehabilitation of victims, and prosecution of traffickers. To prevent and stop trafficking in children, the National Action Plan against Trafficking in Children is being developed by the Ministry of Social Affairs in cooperation with relevant parties. 2. News 23.09.2004 CATW project is launched, http://www.enut.ee/ enut.php?keel=eng&id=&uid=152. 4 6th European Ministerial Conference on Equality between Women and Men
Balanced participation of women and men in decision-making Achieving a gender balance in decision making remains a challenging domain for the improvement of the situation of women in Estonia. There is no quota system in Estonia. In order to educate and motivate more women to take part in decision-making at different levels, seminars and workshops have been organised for NGO leaders, lecturers of women s training centres and trade union activists in the framework of different projects. Capacitybuilding training courses have been conducted for women running for general and local government elections and other elected bodies before elections in all regions. The share of women in the parliament has slowly increased over the years. The percentage of women MPs after elections have been 11.9% in 1995; 17.8% in 1999; and 18.8% in 2003. The share of female candidates in parliamentary elections has been higher: 17.5% in 1995; 27.0% in 1999; and 21.4% in 2003. This shows that women are less likely to get elected than men. The share of women at the local government level has been higher than in the parliament. The percentage of elected women in the local government councils has been 26.6% in 1996; 28.3% in 1999; and 28.4% in 2002, 29.6% in 2005. The share of female candidates has been 33.0% in 1996; 35.6% in 1999 and 37.7 in 2002, 39.3% in 2005. Only one smaller party, the Estonian Left Party, has a chairwoman. Six larger political parties have women s associations, which in turn form parties women s associations round table. The role of the associations is to organise training sessions to provide opportunities for selfrealisation and fulfilment, to help women to find a political identity, to develop self-confidence, solidarity, networking, etc. These associations can also influence party leaders. The most recent study on women and men in politics is Research on Governance: women and men politicians equality, a study which was conducted in 2004 in Estonia as part of the project Mass Media in (Re)Distribution of Power, supported by the Community Framework Strategy on Gender Equality (2001-2005). The objective of the study was to explain women s participation in Estonian politics and find out what female politicians as part of the political elite think about gender equality. Interviews were conducted with fourteen female politicians. The principal finding of the study was that Estonian women do not have equal opportunities with men to reach elected positions. Estonian mass media are one of the central institutions that reinforce gender stereotypes in politics and the society as a whole. The Estonian top women politicians generally feel themselves to be unequal to their male colleagues, but not all of them are ready to oppose the prevailing order. Under the same project, research was conducted on gender and media in Estonia. It contained a theoretical background and methodological points of departure for media analysis from the viewpoint of gender. It also presented findings of two empirical research projects on representation of women politicians in the media in Estonia. Recommendations for (female) politicians, their PR advisors, journalists, media executives and for others interested in that subject were elaborated on the basis of the research results. Both the project Mass Media in (Re)Distribution of Power and previous research show that representation of women and female politicians in media in Estonia follow the universal tendencies shown by western feminist media researchers since the 1970s. Women politicians and other successful career-orientated women may enter the public sphere successfully, but eventually they create a disturbance in the gender order which traditionally associates women with the private sphere. In the framework of the project also seminars and round table discussions on gender issues and mass media for policy makers, media practitioners and PR experts took place. II. Gender analysis and gender budgeting: tools for economic development Gender segregated statistics and gender research Gender statistics have an essential role in the elimination of stereotypes, in the formulation of policies, in raising awareness, inspiring measures for change, providing unbiased basis for policies and measures. The Estonian Statistical Office has published booklets of gender-disaggregated statistics that have been disseminated widely to the general public. The next issue is under preparation and will be published this autumn. A yearbook Social Sector in Figures issued by MoSA includes a chapter Gender equality and gives statistical data in other fields segregated according to sex. To develop indicators at the organisation level, a survey, Gender equality and the workplace was conducted in two enterprises within the framework of the Phare partnership project on occupational healthcare in 2000-2002. The survey considers gender aspects of work satisfaction, work-related stress, relations between management and employees, etc. The Social Policy Information and Analysis Department of the Ministry of Social Affairs has started development of gender equality indicators in the field of political representation, labour market, etc. The list of main indicators, reflecting gender equality in the labour market deals with aspects of employment, unemployment, employment status, labour market segregation, discrepancies in wages and other areas of work life. The system of Report presented by the delegation of Estonia 5
indicators specifically refers to the measures of promoting women in business, employment support schemes and disbursement of employment services. As a member state of the EU Estonia is participating in the process of elaboration of indicators for the follow-up of the Beijing PFA. Gender analysis and gender budgeting International practice proves that the assessment systems are crucial in making policies more effective and more transparent. One of the critical issues of the policy processes in Estonia is under-recognition of the impact of assessment systems as such; their underdevelopment as effective instruments. A strategy for assessing all policies and measures for their social, economical and environmental impact has been in the process of elaboration in Estonia from 2005. Gender impact assessment will be a part of this strategy. MoSA has published a guide to gender impact assessment. The Estonian Guidelines for Gender Impact Assessment give an overview of the historical development and legal bases of different strategies to achieve gender equality, and an overview of Regulatory Impact Analysis as a method for collecting information. The main parts of the guidelines are devoted to gender equality policies, to the introduction of main mechanisms of gender relations in society, elaboration of gender sensitive indicators, information looking strategies and step-by-step guidelines for conducting analysis. Gender impact assessment is an instrument and a component of the Gender Mainstreaming concept. Implementation of GIA as a regular mechanism requires not only availability of sex-desegregated and gender relevant data, but availability of gender expertise as well. The most critical point now is a lack of academic experts for using gender expertise in policy-making and in implementation of gender impact analyses. Women and men in the labour market The Wages Act guarantees equal pay for the same work or for work of equal value for women and men and prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sex with regard to all aspects and conditions of remuneration. In case of discrimination the worker has the right to file a claim for compensation. The Republic of Estonia Employment Contracts Act explicitly prohibits discrimination in employment and entry into employment contracts, in remuneration, promotion in employment or office, giving instructions, termination of employment contracts, access to retraining or in-service training or otherwise in employment relations. The act also lists some exceptions, like the granting of preference on grounds of pregnancy and taking account of the sex of a person upon employment, or upon giving instructions or enabling access to retraining or in-service training, if this is an essential and determinative professional requirement arising from the nature of the professional activity or related conditions in case of which the activities are not regarded as discrimination. Both direct and indirect discrimination are prohibited, and also harassment. Persons are given a right to demand from the employer compensation for pecuniary and non-pecuniary damage caused by the discrimination. The labour force participation rate has been going down for both women and men in the 15-69 age groups. For women, the rate declined from 69.5% in 1990 to 62.8% in 2005, being lowest in 2002 with 60.6%, and for men from 82.1% to 70.0% for the same years, with 2005 being the lowest since regaining independence. During the initial period of transition, i.e. at the turn of the 1990s, unemployment was practically unknown in Estonia and there were no big differences in the unemployment rates of women and men. From 1995 and onwards, the unemployment rate among men has been slightly higher than among women. In 1999, the unemployment rate for women aged 15-64 was 11.1% and 13.7% for men, in 2005 respectively 7.2% and 9.0%. Possible explanations of that trend could be the willingness of women to accept new jobs, even if salaries are lower than expected, and the fact that women change jobs less frequently than men. In 2005 for 62.7% of unemployed men their expected average wage was at least 5 000 EEK, while 37.7% of women were ready to accept a wage of at least 3 000 EEK, 26.2% of at least 4 000 and only 28 considered 5 000 EEK to be the lowest limit. It is important to mention also that the unemployment rate of non-estonians has all the time been higher than that of Estonians (respectively 13.1% and 5.5% in 2005) and in several years the unemployment rate of non-estonian women has been higher than that of non-estonian men, which has not been the case with regard to Estonians. The wage gap between women and men persists with women s average hourly gross wages being 76.5% of the men s relevant wage in 2004. Within the major group of occupation the biggest gap is between male and female technicians and associated professionals, where approximately 70% of workers were women in 2004 (31.9%); and the smallest between skilled agricultural and fishery workers, among whom 40% are women (15.6%). For legislators, senior officials and managers the gap is 18.1%. In the group of occupation of service workers and shop and market sales workers where the biggest number of women worked in 2004 (55 300) and where 77% of workers were women, the gap was 25%. The Estonian labour market features a high degree of both horizontal and vertical segregation. Men and women are engaged in different areas of activities, which indicate that the traditional patterns of men s and women s jobs are still prevailing. 51% of men work in the primary and secondary sectors while approximately 72% of women work in the tertiary sector. At the same time the vertical segregation is noteworthy. The position of Estonian women is comparatively low in the hierarchy: in the pyramid of employment they constitute the majority of the base of the pyramid and only a few women 6 6th European Ministerial Conference on Equality between Women and Men
can be found in the highest ranking positions. Restructuring of the economy and a decrease in the number of jobs at the beginning of the 1990s brought along an increase in part-time employment, which is more characteristic for female workers among whom 10.5% in the age-group of 15-74 were working part-time in 2005, compared to 5% of male workers. The first two studies of women s entrepreneurship were conducted in 2001, the former mapping the situation and the latter identifying the barriers to women s business activities. The results of the survey have been published and discussed in the media. In 2006 MoSa, in cooperation with the Estonian Open Society Institute, elaborated a strategy for development of female entrepreneurship in Estonia. The strategy includes the following topics: an overall analysis of the potential of women entrepreneurship in Estonia; an impact analysis of policies; an analysis of environment; training strategy and program. In 2002 Estonia joined the European Union s Community action programme, through which the European Community framework strategy on gender equality (2001-2005) is implemented. One of the projects carried out on the basis of the programme and co-ordinated by the Ministry of Social Affairs was aimed at supporting women s careers in the private sector. On the basis of the project 1. http://www.praxis.ee/?lang=et&act=show_book&book_id=35&me nu_id=141&page_id=761 Women to the Top, mentor programs were launched in five Estonian private companies, and a publication was translated dealing with organisation-theoretical issues from a feminist viewpoint, It Will Be in Order. The project was carried out in co-operation with gender equality institutions of Sweden, Denmark, and Greece. The research Women-Men on Estonian Labour Market: Evaluation of Wage Differences 1 was carried out by the Political Research Centre Praxis in 2004. Researchers (Tairi Rõõm and Epp Kallaste) revealed that the percentage of average wages for women of the average wage of men in Estonia has risen since our regained independence (wage differences have diminished). The researchers affirm that a large part of the wage differences probably arises from people s attitudes, which are expressed in labour market behaviour of employers or upon selection of employees by employers. The change of attitudes is enhanced by increased awareness. The Estonian media have always abundantly covered wage difference issues. Under the EQUAL programme there is a project of the West Estonian Development Partnership, among the objectives of which are also increasing the employment of low competitive women by 2010. The projects aims at developing and implementing innovative support measures, gathering good practices, enhancing gender equality awareness among institutions making decisions on labour market issues concerning women, etc. There is also another locally limited project under the the EQUAL programme aiming to provide young mothers belonging to risk groups with better access to the labour market through new integrated methods and services. Information materials have been published and distributed. The Ministry of Social Affairs has translated and published the ILO ABC of Women Workers Rights together with pertinent conventions and a list of recommendations in Estonian with the aim of raising public awareness. A reprint of the book was published in 2005. Also an English-Estonian dictionary of equality terminology has been published and the material Elderly women and employment compiled which can be used for the training of employment bureaux and representatives of employers. The European Union Code of Practice on the Implementation of Equal Pay for Work of Equal Value for Men and Women has been translated into Estonian and has been distributed both as a pamphlet and made available through the internet. Reconciliation of professional and family life The rights and benefits related to raising children have significantly changed over the last years. The Parental Benefit Act took effect on 1 January 2004. The idea behind the parental benefit scheme is to compensate the loss of income for the caring family member during the first year of parenthood. The benefit is paid from the state budget. The benefit level is 100% of the parent s previous earnings, but not less than 3 000 EEK (191.70 EUR) per month and not more than three times the average salary. The parents who were not working before are entitled to the benefit in the fixed amount of 2 480 EEK (158.50 EUR) per month in 2006. The parental benefit is paid to the working mother after the end of the maternity benefit. Both the maternity benefit and the parental benefit are at the moment paid for not more than 455 days, so that the parent s wage stays the same during the first year following childbirth. The time will be increased from 2006. Non-working parents enjoy parental benefit starting at childbirth for 11 months. Fathers have the right to parental benefit beginning 6 months from childbirth, but few fathers have used their right to parental leave. Among all the persons who received the parental benefit the share of fathers has been around 1%. The number of fathers has been higher among those persons who received either 100% of the previous salary or the maximum benefit in the amount of three times the average Estonian salary. Persons raising a child under three years of age have social insurance in accordance with the Health Insurance Act. The social benefits are paid to the person actually raising the child. According to the Holidays Act a father of a new-born child is entitled to additional care leave for 14 calendar days during the mother s pregnancy and maternity leave. It is necessary to increase the awareness of both mothers and fathers in order to encourage larger involvement of fathers in child-caring and in family matters in general. Another important issue is to change the mentality of employers. The Act also stipulates more favourable conditions for taking holidays for parents. In 2003, the Government Committee for Child and Family Policy elaborated the basic concept for child and family policy to create a supportive environment for raising children and promoting a more equal distribution of family obligations. Report presented by the delegation of Estonia 7
Under the EQUAL programme a project, Flexible Forms of Training and Work Best Practices of Reconciling Family and Professional Life, aims at improving the opportunities of combining work and family life for both men and women. The leading partner in this project is the Estonian Employers Confederation. Other partners include a centre for policy studies, the Office of the Minister of Population and Ethnic Affairs, the Estonian Law Centre Foundation and others. During the project an interdisciplinary background study is being conducted with the aim of collecting data on obstacles for implementation of flexible forms of work in order to submit proposals on making relevant changes into legislation. Training and consulting needs of the parents excluded from the labour market and inactive parents will be defined and flexible consultation and training programs developed. Another project under the EQUAL programme also aims at creating possibilities for workers with children to participate to the maximum in working process and not being discriminated against because of their status as parents. In yet another EQUAL programme project, where the leading partner is the Office of the Minister of Population and Ethnic Affairs, the goal is to increase the employment of young parents (especially mothers) through the development of a flexible child care system. Breaking the Patterns New Role Models for Men in Leadership Positions (2004-2005), a joint project with Austria, Iceland, Hungary and Sweden within the framework of the action programme of the European Community for promotion of gender equality, aimed at increasing the role of men in family life. The objective of the project was to help male executives personally combine their work and family life better as well as influence them in offering such an opportunity to their subordinates, contributing thereby toward changing the pattern of assigning family caring and responsibilities of reconciliation of family and work to women only. 8 6th European Ministerial Conference on Equality between Women and Men