INDIAN LEGAL HISTORY

INDIAN LEGAL HISTORY By: J. K. MITTAL, B. Se, LL. M Formerly Lecturer in Law, University of Allahabad Revised By: Dr. Sant Prasad Gupta LL. M., D. Phi!. Reader, Law Deptt. C. M. P. Degree College Allahabad University, Allahabad CENTRAL LAW AGENCY LAW PUBLISHERS 30D/1, MOTILAL NEHRU ROAD ALLAHABAD-211002

CONTENTS PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITIION PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION Page ijj iv CHAPTER 1 Birth and growth of the East India Company 1-5 The Mughal Empire 1 The coming of the British 1 London Company Formation 1 The United Company 3 CHAPTER 2 Early Royal Charters 6-10 Charter of 1600 6 Charter of 1609 7 Charter of1661 8 Charter of1668 8 Charterof1676 9 Charterof1683 9 Charterof1686 10 Charterof1687 10 Charter of1693 10 Charter of 1694! 10 CHAPTER 3 British settlement at Surat and Administration of Justice (1613-1687) 11-12 British Settlement at Surat 11 Administration of Justice 11 Englishmen at Surat were under a dual Law English Law and Indian Law.. 12 Transfer of the headquarters from Surat.12 CHAPTER 4 British settlement at Bombay and Administration of Justice (1668-1728) 13-17 Administration of law by Company's Courts 13 Administration of Justice 13 First Period (1670-1683) 14 Second Period (1684-1690) 15 Third Period (1718-1726) 16 CHAPTER 5 British settlement at Madras and Administration of Justice (1639-1726) 18-21 British settlement at Madras 18 Administration of Justice 18 (v)

CONTENTS vi First Stage (1639-1665) 18 Second Stage (1665-1686) 19 Third Stage (1686-1726) 20 CHAPTER 6 British settlement at Calcutta and Administration of Justice (1690-1727) 22-23 British settlement at Calcutta 22 Administration of Justice 22 CHAPTER 7 Royal Charters of 1726 and 1753 (Creation of Mayor's Court) 24-29 Grant of the Charter of 1726 24 Charter of1753 27 End of the Mayor's Courts 29 CHAPTER 8 Grant and significance of Diwani 30-32 CHAPTER 9 * Warren Hastings and Adalat System 33-38 Mughal Adalat System and its defect 33 Plan of 1772 :... 33 Plan of 1774 36 Appointment of Sir Elijah Impey as the sole Judge of the Sadar Diwani Adalat 37 Plan of Impey 38 CHAPTER 10 The Regulating Act, 1773 39-42 General.39 Important provisions of the Act, Change in the Constitution of the Company'.. 39 Defects of the Regulating Act 40 Comments : 41 CHAPTER 11 The Supreme Court at Fort William, Calcutta 43-48 Constitution 43 Extent of Jurisdiction 43 As an Enquiry Court 43 As a Criminal Court 44 As an Ecclesiastical Court 44 As an Admiralty Court 44 Power to issue writs 44 Appeals to the King-in-Council 44 Merits of the Court.44 Law to be administered 46 Defective process 47

INDIAN LEGAL HISTORY CHAPTER 12 Trial of Nand Kumar 49-55 Situation in the background of the Trial 49 Case of Queen of Burdwan 49 Case of Munni Begum 49 First Case of Nand Kumar 49 Facts of the case 49 Grounds of attack 50 Conclusion 52 Some peculiar features of the Trial 53 Patna Case Introduction 53 Decision of the Patna Council and Appeal to Sadar Diwani Adalat 53 Case before the Supreme Court 54 CHAPTER 13 The Cassijurah Case 56-58 Introduction 56 Facts 56 Action taken by the Governor-General 56 Action taken by the Supreme Court 57 Appraisal of the case 57 Petition to Parliament 58 CHAPTER 14 The Act of Settlement, 1781 59-65 General 58 Preamble 58 Provisions of the Act of 1781 59 Writ jurisdiction 63 Comments 63 The result of the two Acts 64 Pariiamentary inquiries of 1781 64 Fox's East India Bill 1783 64 Pitt's India Act of 1784 68 CHAPTER 15 Recorder's Courts at Madras and Botnbay 66-70 Jurisdiction of the Courts 66 Reservation of native laws 67 Appeals 67 Court of Requests 67 Recorder's Courts compared with Mayor's Courts 67 Act of 1823 : Creation of Supreme Court at Bombay 68 Laws administered by the Supreme Court 68 Jurisdiction of the Court.68 Dissensions at Bombay 69 Moro Raghunath Case 69

CONTENTS vih CHAPTER 16 Judicial Reforms by Lord Cornwallis (1787-1793) 71-87 Introduction 71 The Judicial Scheme of 1787 71 Regulation of June 8 72 Regulation of June 27 72 Comments on the scheme 72 Reform in the system of Criminal Justice, 1790 73 Sadar Nizamat Adalat 75 Courts of Circuit 75 Courts of Magistrates 75 The Developments During 1790-1793 76 The Judicial Plan of 1793 77 Provisions of 1793 Plan 78 Separation of Civil Justice and Revenue Jurisdiction 78 Re-organization of Diwani Adalat 78 Jurisdiction of the Civil Courts over the British subjects 79 Executive subjected to Judicial Control 79 Provisions for the dispute between the Government and the individuals.. 80 Previnciai Courts of Appeal 80 Reorganisation of Sadar Diwani Adalat 81 Creation of Subordinate Judicial Agencies 81 Creation of the Registrar's Courts 82 Abolition of the Court fees 82 Administration of Criminal Justice 83 The Indian Law Officers.83 Reforms in the Legislative methods and forms 83 Organisation of the Legal Profession 84 Political Reforms 84 CHAPTER 17 Judicial Reforms by Sir John Snore (1794-1797) 88-93 Introduction 88 Changes in 1794 89 Changes in 1795 90 Changes made in 1796 91 Actof 1797 and Shore's next attempt to modify 1783 Plan 91 in 1797 the following further changes were>made in Judicial Plan of 1793.. 91 CHAPTER 18 Judicial Reforms by Lord Wellessley and Lord Cornwallis (1798-1806) 94-98 Lord Wellesley.94 Reforms in 1798-1801 94 Reforms in 1799."... 94 Ch-»nge in the Constitution of the Sadar Diwani and Nizamat Adalats (1801) 94 Amendment by Regulation 3 of 1801 96

Ix IND1AN LEGAL HISTORY Introduction of the Adalat System in ceded and conquered territories... 96 Reforms introduced in Civil Courts (1803) -91 Lord Cornwallis 98 CHAPTER 19 Judicial Reforms by Lord minto, Lord Hastings and Lord Amherst (1807-1828) 99-107 Lord Minto... 99 Reforms in Civil Judicature 99 Reforms in Criminal Judicature 100 Coliector's power to try rent cases 101 Charter Act of 1813 101 Lord Hastings 101 Situation before the introduction of reforms 101 Reforms, introduced in 1814 103 Qualifications of the Judges of Sadar Adalats 104 Changes made in 1821 105 Reforms in Criminal Judicature 105 Lord Amherst 106 Provisions for Salary and Extension of the Jurisdiction of Sadar Ameens 106 Coliector's jurisdiction in Rent Cases Widened : 106 Powers to Magistrates and Superintendent of Police 106 Courts of Circuit 107 CHAPTER 20 ~ Judicial Reforms by Lord William Bentinck (1828-1836) 108-116 Reforms in Criminal Judicature (1829) 108 Reforms in Criminal Judicature (1831) 110 Coliector's Jurisdiction in Rent Cases 111 Reforms in Civil Judicature 111 Establishment of another Sadar Diwani Adalat at Allahabad 112 Jury System 113 Punishment 113 Comments 113 Charter of 1833 113 Adalat System after Bentinck 114 CHAPTER 21 Adalat System beyond Bengal 117-124 Madras 117 Administration of Civil Justice 117 Administration of Criminal Justice 119 Police Reforms 120 Bombay 120 Administration of Civil Justice 120 Administration of Criminal Justice 121 Police System 121, Reveniw Cases 122

CONTENTS x Non-Regulation Provinces 122 Judicial System 122 After the establishment ofaii-lndia Legislative Council in 1861 123 CHAPTER 22 Justice of the Peace and Insolvency Courts 125-127 Justice of the Peace 125 Insolvency Courts '. 127 CHAPTER 23 Small Cause Courts 128-129 Small Cause Courts in Presidency Towns.128 Provincial Small Cause Courts 129 Importance of Small Cause Courts 129 CHAPTER 24 The indian High Courts Act, 1861 and 1911 130-140 Introduction 130 Indian High Courts Act, 1861 131 The Charter of the Culcutta High Court.133 Result of the establishment of High Courts 135 Indian High Courts Act. 1865 136 The Indian High Courts Act, 1911.136 The High Courts under the Government of India Act, 1915.136 Law to be applied by the High Courts 137 High Courts under the Act of 1935 138 CHAPTER 25 High Courts in India under the Constitution of India, 1950 141-148 Constitution of the High Court and Appointment of Judges etc 141 Jurisdiction of existing High Courts 141 The Writ Jurisdiction 142 Miscellaneous Provisions 143 High Courts for Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Nagaland 145 High Courts for Union Territories 145 Comments 146 CHAPTER 26 The Privy Council 149-163 Introduction 149 History of the Privy Council. 149 The Nature, Extent and Importance of the Jurisdiction of Privy Council... 150 Judicial Committee Act of 1833 152 Appeals from India 152 Fate of eariy appeals 154 Power of the Privy Council to entertain Appeals 155 Act of Wttttam, the Fourth, 1833 155 Appointment of a Permanent Judicial Committee 156

xi INDIAN LEGAL HISTORY Specific Provisions for appeals from India and dissposat of pending appeals 156 Subsequent amendments and Changes 157 Judicature Act, 1845 157 Right of appeal under the Charters of the various High courts 158 Right of appeal under the Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure 158 Special Leave to appeal 159 Viscount Haldane has similarty observed 160 Right of appeal from Federal Courts established under the Government of India Act, 1935 160 The Federal Court (Enlargement of Jurisdiction) Act, 1948 161 The Abolition of Privy Council Jurisdiction Act 1949 161 Evaluation of the role of the Privy Council as highest court of Law 161 CHAPTER 27 Federal Court and The Supreme Court of India under The Constitution of India, 1980 164-176 The Federal Court 164 Establishment 164 Constitution 164 Other Provisions 165 Jurisdiction 165 Miscellaneous Provisions as regards the Authority of the Federal Court 166 Appeals to Privy Council 166 Comments 167 The Supreme Court 167 Establishment and Constitution 167 Appointment of Acting Chief Justice or ad hoc Judges 168 Status of the Supreme Court 168 Jurisdiction 169 Appeal by Special leave 172 Miscellaneous Provisions 173 Comments 175 CHAPTER 28 Subordinate Courts 177-189 Introduction 177 Civil Courts 177 Criminal Courts 178 Description of offences cognizawe by each Court 180 Sentences which may be passed by various Courts 181 Village Panchayats 182 Revenue Courts (in Uttar Pradesh) 183 Provisions under Constitution 184 Separation of Executive and Judiciary 186 Comments 1*7

CONTENTS xii CHAPTER 29 The Regulation Law 190-195 Extent of the Legislative powers before the Regulating Act 190 Extent of the Legislative power under the Acts of 1773 and 1781 190 Reforms in the Legislative methods and forms in 1793 191 Pariiamentary Recognition of the Code of 1793 192 Regulation Law in Madras and Bombay 192 Extension of Legislative Authority in 1813 193 Power to alter Revenue and impose taxes 193 Comments 193 CHAPTER 30 Introduction of English Law in India 196-210 Introduction 196 Reception of English Law in India 196 When Engiish Law introduced 197 Natives in the Presidency Towns 204 Law Administered in the Mofussil 206 Law in the Bombay Provincial Courts 209 Comments. 210 CHAPTER 31 Hlstory of Raclal Discrimlnatlon 211-215 Introduction 211 Racial discrimination in the field of Civil Justice 211 Racial discrimination in the field of Criminal Justice 213 CHAPTER 32 History of the Doctrine of Justice, Equlty and Good Conscience 216-225 Meaning of the expression 216 How and when Introduced 216 Effect of the Doctrine on the Development of Law 219 Introduction of the technical Rufes of English Law through the Doctrine...219 Application of the Doctrine to persons other than Hindus and Muslims... 222 CHAPTER 33 The Gentoo Code 226-228 Introduction 226 Origin 226 Dascriptton 227 Comments 228 CHAPTER 34 Tha devølopment of Criminal Law upto Indian Penal Coda 229-245 Introduction 229 Outlines of Mohammedan Criminal Law 230 DøfSCtS 232

xiii INDIAN LEGAL HISTORY Modifications in Muslims Criminal Law 235 End of the Mohammedan Law of Crimes as a General Law, 1832 241 Law of Crimes in Agra or Benaras and the ceded Districts 242 Law of Crimes in Madras 242 Law of Crimes in Bombay 243 Elphinstone Code 243 Hindu Law of Crimes 243 Comments 245 CHAPTER 35 Charter Act of 1833 and the First Law Commlssion 246-255 Charter Act of 1833... '. 246 Introduction 246 Provisions of the Charter Act 248 First Law Commission (1834-1843) 250 Appointment 250 Draft Penal Code 251 Draft Civil Procedure and Limitation Bills 251 Lex Loci Report. 251 Other Digests and Guides 255 CHAPTER 36 Charter Act of 1853 256-260 Provisions regarding the Legislative Council 256 Appointment of Law Commission in England 256 Second Law Commission 257 Appointment 257 Report of the Commission regarding Substantive Civil Law 257 Other Reports 258 CHAPTER 37 Thirtd Law Commission 260-277 Appointments 260 Reports of the Commission 260 Resignation of the Commission 261 Fourth Law Commission 262 Appointment 262 Recommendations of the Commission 263 Passage of Certain Codes and Acts 264 Fifth Law Commission (1955)' 264 Appointment 265 Terms of Reference 265 Two Sections of the Commission 266 Report of the Commission 266 CHARTER 38 Codification in India 278-292 Introduction A. Indian Penal Code 278 278

CONTENTS B. Criminal Procedure Code 281 C. Civil Procedure Code 281 D. tndian Limitation Act 282 E. Indian Succession Act 282 F. Indian Contract Act 284 G. Indian Evidence Act 286 H. More about Indian Codes 288 I. Objections to Codification 291 CHAPTER 39 Customary Law and its Codification 293-297 A. Customary Law 293 Customary Law and its importance 293 Customs in India and their Recognition 293 Hindu Customs 294 Mohammedan Customs 295 Tenancy Customs 295 B. Codification of Customary Law 295 Judicial Recognition of Customs 295 Early steps to ascertain the Customs 295 Advantages of Codification of Customary Law 296 Ascertainment of Customs 296 CHAPTER 40 History of the Personal Laws of Hindus and Mohammedans 298-312 A. Personal Laws of Hindus 298 Hindu Law system 298 Growth and Development of Hindus Law (upto the Foundation of British Empire) 298 Hindu Law under the Muslim Rulers 299 Hindu Law under the Company 299 Hindu Law and the Anglo-lndian Legislature. 302 Hindu Law and the Legislature after Independence 304 B. Personal Law of Mohammedans 308 Mohammedan Law system 308 Development of Muslim Law 308 Mohammedan Law in India under Muslim Rulers 309 Mohammedan Law under the Company 309 Mohammedan Law and the Anglo-lndian Legislature 311 CHAPTER 41 History of 'rerogative Writs in India 313-329 Origin of Prerogative Writs 313 History of Writs in India before the Constitution 313 Prerogative Writs in India before 1950 314 (i) Habeas Corpus 314 (ii) Mandamus 315 (iii) Prohibition 315 xiv

xv INDIAN LEGAL HISTORY (iv) Quo Warranto 316 (v) Certiorari.. : 316 Prerogative writs under the Constitution of India 318 The Writs in Particular 320 CHAPTER 42 Law Reporting in India 328-335 The Doctrine of Precedent 328 Law Reporting upto 1862 329 Reporting after 1862 331 Law Reporting : Fifth Law Commission 334 CHAPTER 43 History of Legislatives 336-341 Earty Development 336 Birth of Central and Provincial Legislatures 337 Growth of Legislature 337 Legislatures under the Government of India Act, 1919 338 Legislatures under the Government of India Act, 1935 339 Indian Independence Act, 1947 341 LEADING CASES 341-344 D o a o