POLI 359 Public Policy Making Session 9-Public Policy Process Lecturer: Dr. Kuyini Abdulai Mohammed, Dept. of Political Science Contact Information: akmohammed@ug.edu.gh College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2016/2017 godsonug.wordpress.com/blog
The Policy Process A policy process is the study of: -Change and development -The related actors -Events and contexts There various forms of process. For example, scholars of the policy cycle describe a process that is ushered through a sequence of stages: -Agenda setting, policy formulation, policy adoption, implementation, and evaluation. Slide 2
The PoliĐy ProĐess ;ĐoŶt d: Other process theories and frameworks focus on distinct stages of the policy process. Examples are: -KiŶgdoŶ s (1984) Multiple Streams Model of Agenda Setting (focus on one stage) -Mazmania aŷd Saďatier s ;1ϵϴ1 Implementation Framework (focus on one stage) -Diffusion and Innovation Framework (Berry and Berry, 2007) (focus on how multiple stages are adopted or rejected). Slide 3
The PoliĐy ProĐess ;ĐoŶt d: -Institutional Analysis and Development Framework (Ostrom, 2005) (focus on how actors engage in adaptive decision making -Advocacy Coalition Network (Sabatier and Jenkins- Smith, 1993) (looks at processes which emerge via conflict and competition among two or more coalitions Thus, the policy process should not be singly interpreted as the policy cycle. Indeed each process lens has its place. The aim is to draw lessons from each of the processes. Slide 4
The Policy Cycle A cycle divides the policy process into a series of stages The policy cycle conveys an image of a continuous process The continuity means policy-making is not an event The policy cycle is the most influential way of describing policy making This approach breaks the policy making process into clear and identifiable steps The cycle suggests that policy develops through a standard sequence of tasks These tasks can be framed as activities or questions. Slide 5
The PoliĐy CyĐle ;ĐoŶt d: The standard number of stages in the cycle are five. These include: -Agenda setting -Policy formulation -Policy adoption -Implementation -Evaluation Slide 6
The PoliĐy CyĐle ;ĐoŶt d: Figure 9.1: The Policy Cycle Slide 7
Strengths of the Policy Cycle It emphasizes that government is a process and not just a collection of venerable institutions. It disaggregates complex phenomena into manageable steps allowing us to focus on the different issues and needs of each phase in the cycle. It permits some synthesis of existing knowledge about public policy. It serves as a description of policy making, to assist in making sense of policy development, past and present. Slide 8
StreŶgths of the PoliĐy CyĐle ;ĐoŶt d: It is normative, suggesting a particular sequence of events. It is a first foray into complexity. It provides a guide to future action. It organizes observations into familiar patterns. It suggests a process that transcends particular institutions or policy design. Slide 9
Weakness of the Policy Cycle It creates an artificial expectations of a reliable and predictable policy world. It risks imposing too great a neatness on policy making that is renowned for complexity and discontinuity. It cannot capture the full ebb and flow of a sophisticated policy debate. It does not accommodate the value-laden world of politics. The cycle is presented as if policy making is a linear process. Yet some stages can skipped or compressed. The real policy making may be messy rather than orderly. Slide 10
Agenda Setting Agenda setting is the narrowing of an infinite array of possible policy problems to a few that command government attention The policy agenda arises from competition among voices seeking attention The policy agenda is determined politically with no guarantee that the most significant issues will make it onto the list The agenda is biased towards areas already receiving government attention. Slide 11
AgeŶda SettiŶg ;ĐoŶt d: The agenda is also biased towards areas with capacity to attract political interest The agenda is set often not by public opinion or media attention Rather it is often set by influential elites either already in government or with access to decision makers Not all issues attract attention Those issues lacking dramatic impact, that affect minorities or do not lend themselves to simple analysis and presentation are unlikely to find a broader audience. Slide 12
Drivers of the Policy Agenda: The drivers of the policy agenda can be divided into three categories: -Political issue drivers -External drivers -Drivers within government -Other drivers Political issues drivers include the following: -Party political platform -Key government achievement of the past -Ministerial and government changes. Slide 13
Drivers of the PoliĐy AgeŶda ;ĐoŶt d External drivers include the following: -Economic forces (e.g. share market fluctuation, interest rate adjustment, employment rate, etc.) -Media attention -Opinion polls -Legal shifts (Supreme Court judgment) -International relations (refugee arrivals, diplomatic representation over human rights issues) -Technological development -Demographic shifts Slide 14
Drivers of the PoliĐy AgeŶda ;ĐoŶt d Drivers within government include the following: Emerging issues monitored by government policy specialists Monitoring policy issues in other jurisdiction (e.g. failure of policies in other countries) Ongoing monitoring of wicked problems, intractable issues of perennial government concern Coordination of policy issues across government and between structures Budget overruns and unfavourable audit reports. Slide 15
Drivers of the PoliĐy AgeŶda ;ĐoŶt d Other drivers include the following: Activities of interest groups Crisis or triggering events Beliefs and values of the polity Slide 16
Criteria for Identifying Policy Agenda Items Agreement on a problem The prospect of a solution An appropriate issues A problem for whom Slide 17
Policy Formulation Policy formulation is the exploration of the various options available for resolving a problem. It involves the assessment of possible solutions to policy problems. Policy formulation involves the development of alternative proposals for action. The process of defining, considering or rejecting options is the substance of policy formulation. Slide 18
Who makes Policy Proposals? Presidential staffers who develop these proposals for parliament Career bureaucrats who make proposals for cabinet Committees or policy knowledgeable people and interest groups. For example, interest groups may make direct proposals to legislature. Thus, if canoe fishermen in Ghana feel that an increase in the price of premix fuel affects them they may make proposal to Parliament. Slide 19
Characteristics of the Policy Formulation Stage Formulation need not be limited to one set of actors. Formulation may proceed without a clear definition of the problem, or without formulators having much contact with the affected groups. There is no necessary coincidence between formulation and particular institutions. Although it is a frequent activity of bureaucratic agencies. Formulation and reformulation may occur over a long period of time without building sufficient support for any one proposal. Slide 20
Characteristics of the Policy ForŵulatioŶ Stage ;ĐoŶt d There are often several appeal points for those who lose in the formulation process at any one level. The process itself has neutral effects. Somebody wins and somebody loses even in the working of science. Recommendations for a particular course of action is done on the basis of its pros and cons. Ministers and the government are not bound by bureaucratic findings in their choice of a solution. If the choices are not palatable politicians may seek further information or change aspects of the equation. Slide 21
Policy Adoption/Decision Making The policy adoption or decision making is the stage where authoritative policy actors issue some formal or informal statement of intent to undertake or refrain from undertaking some action The process of decision making involves the sequence of: getting policy proposals out of debates and deliberations Selecting the preferred proposal or course of action Enactment of laws in parliament Assenting to the enactment by the president Some decisions are made via executive orders, court Slide 22 rule.
Characteristics of the Policy Adoption Stage Decision making is not a self-contained stage, nor is it synonymous with the entire policy making process Different kinds of decisions can result from a decision making process Policy decision making is not only a technical exercise but an inherently political process Public policy decisions create winners and losers There is a likely direction and scope of policy decision making Sets of theories prescribe how decisions ought to be made. Slide 23
Types of Decisions Positive Decisions: Refer to the type of decisions that alter the status quo. Negative Decisions: Refers to a choice to reject options to alter the status quo. Non decisions refer to the act of filtering out certain options out of the agenda setting or policy formulation stages. Slide 24
Policy Implementation Implementation means carrying out programs of activities to achieve policy goals At the implementation stage: -People are informed of the choice of government -Policy instruments are created and put in place -Staff are instructed -Services are delivered -Monies are spent; bills are prepared for parliament Thus, the machine of state implements government wishes. Slide 25
Who Implements Public Policy? Executive arm of government Bureaucratic agencies Parliamentarians and Assembly members The law courts NGOs and Pressure groups Profit making organizations Slide 26
Conditions for Successful Implementation of Policy No crippling external constraints Adequate time and resources A suitable combination of resources at each stage A valid theory of cause and effect Direct link between cause and effect A single implementation agency or at least a dominant one Understanding and agreement on the objectives to be achieved. Slide 27
Implementation Problems Incomplete specification: Policies are rarely complete, able to cover every contingency. Inappropriate agency: The assigning of responsibility to a particular agency will affect the expertise available. Conflicting objectives: All governments have multiple objectives and these objectives mostly conflict rather than converge. Incentive failure: If implementing agencies are not given sufficient incentives to implement carefully and thoroughly policies can fail. Slide 28
IŵpleŵeŶtatioŶ Proďleŵs ;ĐoŶt d Conflicting directives: Those who must implement policy are often subject to conflicting instructions. Limited competence: The objectives that should be extracted from programs may mismatch agency capacity. Inadequate administrative resources: Governments sometimes announce new policies without providing funds. Communication failure: Successful program implementation usually rests on building an effective communication network Slide 29
Policy Evaluation The term evaluation is synonymous with three words: -Appraisal -Rating -Assessment Each of these words refers to the application of some scale value to the outcomes of policies. The scale of value may be objective or subjective depending on how people benefit or not benefit from the policy. It refers to how a policy has fared or performed in Slide 30 action.
Activities involved in Policy Evaluation Measuring output performance that is the actual outputs and outcomes the policy has delivered. Comparing output performance against desired results that is, weighing actual outputs and outcomes against expected outputs and outcomes. Correcting any deviations that is determining whether any of the activities (issues, needs, problems) have been the right ones and that they have been sufficiently addressed. Slide 31
Who Evaluates Policies? Policy makers Those charged with implementing the policy Members of the public affected by the specific policy under consideration Private research organizations The media Presidential commission Parliamentary oversight Political parties Slide 32
Types of Policy Evaluation Administrative evaluation Judicial evaluation Political evaluation Administrative evaluation is: -It is usually conducted within government. -It is usually focused on the examination of the efficient delivery of government services. -It determines whether value for money is achieved -It entails the collection of precise information and its compilation in a standardized format costs and outcomes. Slide 33
Types of PoliĐy EvaluatioŶ ;ĐoŶt d Judicial evaluation does not focus on budgets, priorities, efficiencies and expenditure. It focus is on the legal issues relating to the manner in which government programs are implemented. It determines whether there are possible conflicts between: -Government action and constitutional provision -Established standards of administrative conduct -Individual human rights Slide 34
Types of PoliĐy EvaluatioŶ ;ĐoŶt d Political evaluation of government policy is conducted by just about everyone with any interest in political life. Political evaluations are neither systematic nor necessarily technically sophisticated. Indeed many of these evaluations are inherently partisan, one sided and biased. Partisan political evaluations often attempt to label a policy as either a success or failure. This evaluation is followed by demands for change. Political evaluation is an ongoing activity. Slide 35
Criteria of Policy Evaluation Efficiency Effectiveness Equity Appropriateness Adequacy Responsiveness Slide 36