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WIPO SCT/6/3 ORIGINAL: English DATE: January 25, 2001 E WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION GENEVA STANDING COMMITTEE ON THE LAW OF TRADEMARKS, INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS AND GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS Sixth Session Geneva, March 12 to 16, 2001 GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, NATURE OF RIGHTS, EXISTING SYSTEMS FOR PROTECTION AND OBTAINING EFFECTIVE PROTECTION IN OTHER COUNTRIES Document prepared by the International Bureau

page 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS A. INTRODUCTION...4 B. TERMINOLOGY...4 C. EXISTING APPROACHES FOR THE PROTECTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS...6 I. UNFAIR COMPETITION AND PASSING OFF... 7 (a) Unfair competition... 7 (b) Passing off... 8 (c) Conclusion... 8 II. PROTECTED APPELLATIONS OF ORIGIN AND REGISTERED GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS... 9 (a) Protected appellations of origin... 9 (b) Registered geographical indications... 9 (c) Conclusion 10 III. COLLECTIVE AND CERTIFICATION MARKS... 10 (a) Certification marks... 10 (b) Collective marks... 11 (c) Conclusion... 11 IV. Administrative schemes for protection... 12 (a) General... 12 (b) Conclusion... 12 V. CONCLUSION OF PART C... 12 D. OBTAINING EFFECTIVE PROTECTION IN OTHER COUNTRIES...13 I. BILATERAL AGREEMENTS... 13 /...

page 3 II. MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS... 13 (a) The Paris Convention... 14 (b) The Madrid Agreement on Indications for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods... 14 (c) The Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration... 15 (d) The TRIPS Agreement... 16 III. ATTEMPTS TO REVISE THE MULTILATERAL SYSTEM OF PROTECTION AFTER 1958... 18 (a) Preparation in 1974 and 1975 of a New Multilateral Treaty on the Protection of Geographical Indications... 18 (b) Revision of the Paris Convention... 19 (c) The 1990 Committee of Experts on the International Protection of Geographical Indications... 21 IV. PROBLEMS EXISTING IN OBTAINING EFFICIENT PROTECTION IN OTHER COUNTRIES... 22 (a) General... 22 (b) Type and Scope of Protection... 22 (c) Generic Character of Certain Geographical Indications... 24 (d) Conflicts Between Trademarks and Geographical Indications... 25 ANNEXES V. DEVELOPMENT OF A COMMON UNDERSTANDING... 30

page 4 A. INTRODUCTION 1. The present document has been prepared following a decision of the Standing Committee on the Law of Trademarks, Industrial Designs and Geographical Indications (SCT), taken at its fifth session (Geneva, September 11 to 15, 2000) that, in order to create a better understanding of the legal issues related to the protection of geographical indications, the International Bureau should prepare a supplement for document SCT/5/3 ( Possible Solutions for Conflicts Between Trademarks and Geographical Indications and for Conflicts Between Homonymous Geographical Indications ). This supplement should deal with the following issues: The historical background of the protection of geographical indications; clarification of the nature of the rights in geographical indications; description of the different existing systems for the protection of geographical indications; and investigation of the problems existing in obtaining effective protection for geographical indications in other countries. 1 2. The opening portion of the present document addresses questions concerning terminology. Geographical indications as a subject of intellectual property are characterized by a wide range of different concepts of protection. It is therefore important to clarify the terminology used. As a next step, this document describes existing approaches to the protection of geographical indications on the national and regional levels. In that context, it will refer to the historical development of individual concepts of protection and address the question of the nature of the rights attached to geographical indications. That portion is followed by an investigation of the problems existing in obtaining effective protection for geographical indications in other countries. At the end, the document lists a number of areas in regard of which it would appear worthwhile to develop a common international understanding. B. TERMINOLOGY Indications of Source and Appellations of Origin 3. The terminology traditionally applied in treaties in the field of geographical indications administered by WIPO distinguishes between indications of source and appellations of origin. 4. The term indication of source is used in Articles 1(2) and 10 of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883 ( Paris Convention ). It is also used throughout the Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods of 1891 ( Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source ). There is no definition of indication of source in those two treaties, but Article 1(1) of the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source contains language which clarifies what is meant by the term. That Article reads as follows: All goods bearing a false or deceptive indication by which one of the countries to which this Agreement applies, or a place situated therein, is directly or indirectly 1 SCT/5/6 Prov., paragraph 130.

page 5 indicated as being the country or place of origin shall be seized on importation into any of the said countries. Consequently an indication of source can be defined as an indication referring to a country, or to a place in that country, as being the country or place of origin of a product. It is important that the indication of source relates to the geographical origin of a product and not to another kind of origin, for example, an enterprise that manufactures the product. This definition does not imply any special quality or characteristics of the product on which an indication of source is used. Examples of indications of source are the mention, on a product, the name of a country, or indications such as made in... 5. The term appellation of origin is defined in the Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration, of 1958 ( Lisbon Agreement ). The Lisbon Agreement establishes an international system of protection for appellations of origin which are already protected under the national law of one of the States party to that Agreement. Protection is subject to the international registration of that appellation of origin. Article 2(1) of the Lisbon Agreement defines the term appellation of origin as follows: Appellation of origin means the geographical name of a country, region, or locality, which serves to designate a product originating therein, the quality and characteristics of which are due exclusively or essentially to the geographical environment, including natural and human factors. Under this definition, an appellation of origin can be regarded as a special kind of indication of source, because the product for which an appellation of origin is used must have quality and characteristics which are due exclusively or essentially to its origin. Examples for protected appellations of origin are Bordeaux for wine, Noix de Grenoble for nuts, Tequila for spirit drinks, or Jaffa for oranges. 2 Geographical Indications 6. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights of 1994 ( TRIPS Agreement ) contains a Section dealing with the protection of geographical indications (Part II, Section 3). Article 22.1 of the TRIPS Agreement provides the following definition: Geographical indications are, for the purposes of this Agreement, indications which identify a good as originating in the territory of a Member [of the World Trade Organization], or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin. This definition is apparently based on the definition of appellation of origin in Article 2 of the Lisbon Agreement. However, it deviates from Article 2 of the Lisbon Agreement in some respects. Article 21.1 of the TRIPS Agreement defines geographical indications as indications which identify a good [ ], whereas Article 2 of the Lisbon Agreement defines appellations of origin as the geographical name of a country, region, or locality, which 2 All of these examples are appellations of origin registered under the Lisbon Agreement.

page 6 serves to designate a product [ ]. 3 Signs other than geographical names, for example a non-geographical name or an emblem, would not be covered by Article 2 of the Lisbon Agreement. However, they would fall into the category of signs that could constitute geographical indications under the TRIPS Agreement. Furthermore, the Lisbon Agreement requires that the quality and the characteristics of the product in question be due exclusively, or essentially, to the geographical environment, including natural and human factors. The TRIPS Agreement covers goods which have a given quality, reputation or other characteristic that is essentially attributable to their geographical origin. It is generally understood that goods which have merely a certain reputation, but not a specific quality being due to their place of origin, are not covered by the definition of appellation of origin as provided by the Lisbon Agreement. 7. If the definitions of indication of source, appellation of origin and geographical indication are compared with each other, the following can be observed. Indication of source is the broadest term. It comprises geographical indication and appellation of origin. Indications of source only require that the product on which the indication of source is used originate in a certain geographical area. Thus, there are indications of source, which seem not to be covered by the definition of geographical indication under the TRIPS Agreement, namely indications of source whose use on products does not imply a particular quality, reputation or characteristic of those products. Geographical indications are more broadly defined than appellations of origin. In other words, all appellations of origin are geographical indications, but some geographical indications are not appellations of origin. 8. For the purpose of the present document, the term geographical indication will be used in a general manner, covering indication of source, geographical indication (within the meaning of Article 22.1 of the TRIPS Agreement) and appellation of origin. However, it must be borne in mind that the terms indication of source, appellation of origin and geographical indication are used in different international legal instruments. Rights and obligations flowing from those instruments, exist only in relation to the category of geographical indication to which the instrument in question refers. Therefore, it may not always be possible to speak broadly of geographical indications; rather, a distinction must be made within the context of the international agreement that is under consideration. This point will be further developed in the portion of the document dealing with existing problems in obtaining efficient protection for geographical indications in other countries. C. EXISTING APPROACHES FOR THE PROTECTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS 9. Protection of geographical indications on the national and regional levels is characterized by the existence of a variety of different legal concepts. Those concepts were developed in accordance with different national legal traditions and within a framework of specific historical and economic conditions. These differences have a direct bearing on important questions such as condition of protection, entitlement to use and scope of protection. In the following paragraphs, the main existing concepts of protection are introduced: Unfair competition and passing off, protected appellations of origin and registered geographical indications, collective and certification trademarks, and administrative schemes of protection. The historical development of the different concepts and the nature of 3 Emphasis added.

page 7 the rights involved will be touched upon. Given the large variety in national laws and regulations concerned with the protection of geographical indications, a division into four different categories is necessarily artificial and may not precisely reflect the situation in every Member State. It is therefore possible that a mechanism of protection exists in a Member State that does not necessarily fall into any of those four categories as defined. 10. Furthermore, it is important to note that the mechanisms described do not necessarily apply on an exclusive basis. On the contrary, cumulative application of different means of protection is very common. Cumulative protection of geographical indications under different systems of protection is accentuated by the existence of different means of protection for different categories of products. I. Unfair competition and passing off (a) Unfair competition 11. It can be observed that countries have established some kind of safeguard against unfair business practices. This is reflected on the international level through the inclusion of Article 10bis into the Paris Convention at the 1900 Brussels Revision Conference, establishing a basic international rule concerning protection against unfair competition. It requires all States party to the Paris Convention to provide effective protection against unfair competition, which is defined as any act of competition contrary to honest practices in industrial or commercial matters. 4 12. At the national level, protection against unfair competition has developed differently in different countries. However, there is at least one objective that is common to all different approaches, and that is to provide those in trade with an effective remedy against unlawful and dishonest business practices of their competitors. In some countries, specific statutes providing for the repression of unfair competition also fulfil the function of consumer protection. 13. A determination of whether a given commercial act is contrary to honest practices in industrial or commercial matters will have to be made in application of national laws for the protection against unfair competition. However, it is accepted that commercial practices which are misleading, or are likely to mislead the public with respect to an enterprise or its activities, in particular, the geographical origin of products offered by such enterprise, constitute an act of unfair competition. 5 14. In order to prevent the unauthorized use of a geographical indication on the basis of an action against unfair competition, a plaintiff must regularly show that the use of the geographical indication in question by an unauthorized party is misleading and, as the case may be, that damages or a likelihood of damages result from such use. Such an action can only be successful if the geographical indication in question has acquired distinctiveness; in other words, if the relevant public associates goods sold under that geographical indication with a distinct geographical origin and/or certain qualities or reputation. 4 See, in general, Protection Against Unfair Competition. 5 See Article 4(2)(iv) of the WIPO Model Provisions on Protection Against Unfair Competition, and TRIPS Article 22.2(b).

page 8 15. Furthermore, protection of geographical indications under unfair competition law may be supplemented by specific statutory provisions having as their object the protection of unregistered geographical indications, for example, Sections 126 to 129 of the German Trademarks Act of 1994. Under these provisions, natural and legal persons having the right to use a given unregistered geographical indication are entitled to request courts to prevent use of that geographical indication by unauthorized parties and, as the case may be, to accord damages for such use. Sections 126 to 129 of the German Trademarks Act of 1994 are based on principles developed by the courts in applying the law against unfair competition in order to prevent unauthorized use of geographical indications, if such use would be misleading or would take unfair advantage of the reputation of a geographical indication. (b) Passing off 16. Countries having a civil-law tradition that provide for some kind of protection for businesses against unlawful commercial acts from competitors usually base that protection on general tort law. 6 In countries that follow the common law tradition, the action of passing off is often considered as the basis of protection against dishonest business competitors. The passing off action can be described as a legal remedy for cases in which the goods or services of one person are represented as being those of somebody else. 7 What is common to these cases is that the plaintiff loses customers because the defendant led them to believe that they were buying the plaintiff s goods, when they actually obtained the goods of the defendant. 17. Very broadly speaking, in order to prevent the unauthorized use of a geographical indication through a successful action for passing off, a plaintiff must establish that goodwill or reputation is attached to the goods on which the geographical indication is regularly used and which are supplied by him, that the defendant misrepresents to the public that the goods offered by him originate from the plaintiff and that he is likely to suffer damage from such a misrepresentation. (c) Conclusion 18. National laws for the protection against unfair competition, passing off and unregistered geographical indications provide a course of action for traders against competitors who perform commercial acts which are considered to be contrary to honest business practices. With respect to geographical indications, it can be said that protection against unfair competition serves to protect traders and producers from the unauthorized use of geographical indications by third parties rather than creating individual property rights in them. 19. Another important characteristics of the protection of geographical indications under the law against unfair competition is that important determinations, such as the area of production, standards of production and the circle of producers who are entitled to use a given geographical indication, are made by the courts in the course of legal proceedings. Protection accorded to geographical indications following a lawsuit based on passing off or unfair competition is only effective between the parties of the proceedings. The entitlement to 6 Protection Against Unfair Competition, page 25. 7 Cornish, page 619.

page 9 protection of a given geographical indication must be demonstrated every time enforcement of the protection of that geographical indication is sought. II. Protected appellations of origin and registered geographical indications (a) Protected appellations of origin 20. The system of protected appellations of origin was developed out of a perceived need to provide a remedy against fraudulent commercial practices involving the origin of agricultural products and, in particular, products of the vine. 8 Although such practices are probably as old as trade itself, they occurred increasingly during periods when there was a shortage of supply of certain products, such as was the case with certain wines during the phylloxera crises in parts of European vineyards in the 19 th century. 9 21. A protected appellation of origin is the geographical name of a country, region, or locality, which serves to designate a product originating therein, the quality and characteristics of which are due exclusively or essential to the geographical environment, including natural and human factors. 10 Appellations of origin are explicitly mentioned as objects of industrial property protection under Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention. They are titles of protection for geographical indications used on products that have a specific quality or characteristics that is exclusively or essentially due to their geographical origin. The recognition of a protected appellation is usually based on a legislative or administrative act, such as a law or a decree. This act is at the conclusion of an administrative procedure involving representatives of the producers concerned and the administration. As a result of this procedure, the protected appellation is recognized, and the product or products on which it is used, the geographical area of production and the conditions of use are defined. 22. Unauthorized use of a protected appellation of origin constitutes an offence and engages the criminal and civil responsibility of the person who has made such use. Proceedings are usually instigated by public law bodies, such as fair trading bodies, authorities entrusted with the administration of protected appellations of origin or consumer protection bodies. Often, authorities competent for the enforcement of fiscal laws play an important role in prosecuting the fraudulent use of protected appellations of origin. (b) Registered geographical indications 23. Registered geographical indications are titles of protection that are very similar to protected appellations of origin, although differences as regards the scope of protection and the applicable procedure may exist depending on the national laws of those countries which apply that type of protection. Thus, the protection of a registered geographical indication depends on the registration of that geographical indication, whereas the protection of an appellation of origin usually is subject to the adoption of a specific law or decree. The 8 L Institut National des Appellations d Origine, page 11. 9 Girardeau, page 70. 10 Article 2(1) of the Lisbon Agreement; See also, for example, Article L.115-1 of the French Consumer Code, or Article 2 of EEC Council Regulation No. 2081/92 of July 14, 1992, on the Protection of Geographical Indications and Designations of Origin for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs.

page 10 decision to register a geographical indication may be an administrative decision, for example a determination of a committee, rather than an executive decision by, for example, the comptroller general or the executive head of the agency responsible for the registration of geographical indications. (c) Conclusion 24. The most important specific feature that is common to protected appellations of origin and registered geographical indications appears to be that their legal protection is based on an act of public law (law, decree, ordinance) which stands at the conclusion of an administrative procedure. Through this administrative procedure, important parameters such as the demarcation of the area of production and production standards are defined. Those parameters are applied by law enforcement agencies, either under civil or under criminal law, when determining whether a given protected appellation of origin or registered geographical indication is used without authorization or in a manner contrary to the prescribed mode of use. III. Collective and certification marks 25. Because of the general principle that individual trademarks must not be descriptive or deceptive, geographical terms cannot serve as individual trademarks, unless they have acquired distinctive character through use, or their use is fanciful and, therefore, is not deceiving as to the origin of the goods on which the trademarks are used. However, this rule does not apply to certification marks and collective marks. (a) Certification marks 26. Certification marks are marks which indicate that the goods or services on which they are used have specific qualities, which may also include geographical origin. The owner of the certification mark undertakes to certify that the goods or services on which the certification mark is used have those qualities. As a basic rule, the owner of the certification mark does not have the right to use the mark. This principle is also referred to as the anti-use by owner rule. 11 27. Every producer who complies with standards of production as defined by the owner of the certification mark has the right to use that mark. The owner of the certification mark, who may be a private or public entity, must ensure that the goods or services on which the certification mark is used possess the certified quality. In order to carry out this certification function in a neutral and impartial manner, the owner of the certification mark has to file, together with the application for the registration of the certification mark, detailed regulations which prescribe, inter alia, the characteristics certified by the mark, the authorized users and details concerning the certification and control. As already pointed out, in order to safeguard the objectivity of the owner of the certification mark, he is not allowed to use the certification mark himself. Disregard of that rule regularly leads to the invalidity of the certification mark. 28. The protection of a geographical indication in the form of a certification mark is enforced under general trademark law. In principle, an action for infringement of a 11 McCarthy, page 19-179.

page 11 certification mark is initiated by the owner of the certification mark. 12 For example, this may be the case where the defendant uses a certification mark that certifies a specific geographical origin of goods, for goods not having that geographical origin. (b) Collective marks 29. It has been pointed out that it is difficult to distinguish collective marks from certification marks, and that the difference is one of form rather than one of substance. 13 Collective marks are owned by a collective body such as, for example, a trade association or an association of producers or manufacturers, and serve to indicate that the person who uses the collective mark is a member of that collectivity. Membership in the association that is the owner of the collective mark is, generally speaking, subject to compliance with certain rules, such as the geographical area of production of the goods on which the collective mark is used, or standards of production of such goods. A further difference between the two categories of marks is that the owners of collective marks are regularly not barred from using the mark themselves. 30. Like in the case of certification marks, the protection of collective marks is enforced under general trademark law. An action for infringement may be brought by the owner of the collective mark, for example in a case, where a collective mark is owned by an association of producers who are entitled to use the collective mark, and the mark is used by a person who is not a member of that association. (c) Conclusion 31. Collective and certification marks are used in order to indicate specific qualities of goods such as their geographical origin. Whereas trademarks consisting of descriptive geographical terms are usually excluded from registration, geographical terms are typically admitted for registration as collective or certification trademarks. As long as collective and certification marks are used in a manner that respects the general regulations governing that use, there is no danger of deception as to the real origin of those goods. 14 Once a geographical indication is protected as a collective or certification mark, that geographical indication can be enforced in accordance with the applicable rules of trademark law. 32. It appears that it lies within the competence of the applicant for the registration of a certification or collective mark to define, in the regulations which govern the use of those marks, the delimitation of the area of production of the goods on which those marks are used and any applicable standard of production. This definition is part of the specification to be filed together with the application. Upon acceptance of the application, the specification becomes part of the registration. 12 McCarthy, page 19-168; Annand & Norman, p. 230. 13 McCarthy, page 19-186. 14 See, for example, WTO document IP/C/W/134.

page 12 IV. Administrative schemes for protection (a) General 33. Where geographical indications are used on goods the marketing of which is subject to an administrative approval procedure, this procedure may be applied also for controlling the use of geographical indications applied to those goods. The example that comes readily to mind is wines and spirits, the sale of which is regulated in many countries. 34. Under an administrative approval procedure for product labels, the authority entrusted with the administration of that scheme controls whether the product for which marketing authorization is sought complies with relevant legal requirements, including the permitted use of a geographical indication on the label of the product. If the requirements for approval are not met, for example, because the use of a given geographical indication on a specific product is not permitted, marketing approval is not granted and, consequently, the geographical indication cannot be used. (b) Conclusion 35. Administrative schemes of label control are a means of ensuring fair trade and consumer protection. Depending on the national system that is in place in a given country, the objective of fair trade and consumer protection may be followed by different legal instruments, such as unfair competition acts, fair trading acts or marketing acts for certain products laying down standards of product presentation and marketing. The latter two examples have in common that, as far as geographical indications are concerned, they do not enable the holders of the collective goodwill attached to a geographical indication to take individual action in order to protect that goodwill. Rather, they provide for an administrative mechanism aiming at preventing misleading use of geographical indications on products. Where such misleading use occurs despite the administrative procedures to be followed, usually criminal sanctions will apply. V. Conclusion of Part C 36. The above discussion of various existing means of protection for geographical indications shows that the subject is determined by two basic policy considerations. One is the protection of consumers against misleading use of geographical indications, and the other is the protection of the owners of the collective goodwill attached to geographical indications against misrepresentations resulting in the misappropriation of that goodwill. 37. However, it becomes apparent that a clear-cut distinction into legal categories for protection, depending on the policy objectives to be attained, does not necessarily exist. Furthermore, one can frequently find co-existence of several types of protection for geographical indications in one and the same country, which often differ with respect to various categories of products. A reflection of this variety of concepts may also be observed when it comes to the demarcation of the geographical area of production for goods for which geographical indications may legitimately be used. The competence for making that demarcation may lie with a wide range of different bodies, public, semi-public or private, or tribunals.

page 13 D. OBTAINING EFFECTIVE PROTECTION IN OTHER COUNTRIES 38. This part of the document first describes the existing situation concerning the international protection of geographical indications with reference to bilateral and multilateral agreements. It summarizes past efforts to arrive at new solutions for improved protection of geographical indications at the multilateral level and concludes with a description of problems existing in obtaining efficient protection in other countries. I. Bilateral agreements 39. Bilateral international agreements are typically concluded between two countries on the basis of reciprocity in order to increase protection of the countries respective geographical indications. They may be independent treaties or form part of a wider trade agreement. 15 They may simply provide for a prohibition of use of the other party s geographical indications for goods (usually listed in an annex to the agreement) not having that origin. Or they may go further and provide for the extraterritorial application of the other country s national law concerning the protection of geographical indications. This latter aspect may be important in cases where a given geographical indication does not only indicate the geographical origin of certain goods, but also certain qualities that are due to that origin, such as is the case with protected appellations of origin. 16 40. Bilateral international agreements may cover a wide range of products or be limited to specific goods only. They have been concluded most frequently between European nations earlier in the 20 th century. 17 However, they continuously appear to be important with regard to specific economic sectors and, in particular, the wine industry. 18 II. Multilateral Agreements A second possibility for obtaining international protection for geographical indications is through the conclusion of, and the adherence to, multilateral agreements. The following is a summary of the scope of protection that is provided for geographical indications under the following multilateral treaties: the Paris Convention, the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source, the Lisbon Agreement, and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement). 19 15 E.g., the Crayfish Agreement between France and South Africa from the 1930s (see Symposium on the International Protection of Geographical Indications, Somerset West, 1999, page 31) 16 Tilmann, page 124. 17 Tilmann, page 136. 18 For example, EU-Australia Wine Agreement of 1994. 19 A summary of existing international notification and registration systems for geographical indications is contained in WTO document IP/C/W/85 and IP/C/W/85/Add.1.

page 14 (a) The Paris Convention 41. Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention enumerates among the objects of the protection of industrial property indications of source and appellations of origin. More specific provisions concerning indications of source are contained in Articles 10 and 10ter. 20 42. A provision prohibiting the use of a false indication of source appeared as early as in the original text of the Paris Convention of 1883. However, that protection was rather limited, since the prohibition was only applicable where the false indication of source was used in conjunction with a fictitious or non-existing trade name. 43. Article 10 of the Paris Convention in its current version sets forth that, in cases of direct or indirect use of a false indication of the source of the goods or the identity of the producer, manufacturer or merchant, Article 9 of the Paris Convention should be applicable. Article 9 provides tha t goods bearing a false indication of source are subject to seizure upon importation into countries party to the Paris Convention, or within the country where the unlawful affixation of the indication of source occurred or within the country of importation. This seizure shall take place at the request of the public prosecutor, or any other competent authority, or any interested party. However, Article 9(5) and (6) of the Paris Convention allows that countries party to the Paris Convention whose national laws do not permit seizure on importation or inside the country to replace those remedies by either a prohibition of importation or by any other nationally available remedy. 44. Furthermore, Article 10ter(2) contains an undertaking of the States party to the Paris Convention to allow federations and associations representing producers and trade circles to bring actions in order to enforce the means of protection envisaged in Articles 9 and 10. (b) The Madrid Agreement on Indications for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods 45. The positions of the founding States of the Paris Convention at the 1883 Paris Diplomatic Conference regarding the protection of indications of source did not allow more than a minimum common position with regard to protection on the multilateral level. As already indicated, the original text did not provide for the prevention of the use of false indications per se, but only where such use occurred in connection with the use of a false trade name. 46. Consequently, countries which had greater interest in an improved international protection of indications of source established a special union under the Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods ( Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source ). 21 47. The Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source binds the States which are party to it to prevent not only the use of false indications of source, but also the use of indications of source which are deceptive, i.e., literally true but nevertheless misleading. This may be the case, for example, where a given geographical name exists in two different countries, but was 20 On October 15, 2000, 160 States were party to the Paris Convention (for a complete list, see http://www.wipo.int/treaties/docs/english/d-paris.doc). 21 On October 15, 2000, 32 States were party to the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source.

page 15 used as an indication of source only for products originating from that place in one country. Use of that indication of source by producers from the other country cannot be regarded as use of a false geographical indication, although consumers may be deceived by such use. 48. Article 4 of the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source contains a special provision for regional appellations concerning the source of products of the vine which constitutes an exception to the rule that, in application of the Agreement, the courts are free to decide whether or not a given indication of source is a generic term. This article is noteworthy, since it constitutes a departure from the general rule that the conditions of protection of an indication of source and, in particular, whether a specific indication of source is considered generic, are to be determined by the country in which protection is sought. 49. However, the application of Article 4 of the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source is limited to the products of the vine, and the provision is subject to different interpretations. 22 It was also repeatedly noted that the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source does not significantly increase the level of protection for indications of source already provided under the Paris Convention. 23 Considering also its limited membership, the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source did not gain great practical significance. (c) The Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration 50. One of the results of the Lisbon Diplomatic Conference of 1958, which had attempted, inter alia, to improve the international protection for geographical indications within the framework of the Paris Convention and the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source, was the adoption of a the Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration. 24 51. The Lisbon Agreement takes the protection of indications of source beyond the level of protection provided under the Paris Convention and the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source. The main principle of the Lisbon Agreement is that the States which are party to it undertake to protect appellations of origin that are protected as such in the country of origin and registered in the international register administered by WIPO (Article 1(2)). That means in practice that it is only applicable to appellations of origin which are already protected on the national level in the country of origin. Once a given appellation of origin is protected in its country of origin, that appellation of origin can be registered in an international register administered by WIPO. After its registration, the appellation of origin is published and notified to all other States party to the Lisbon Agreement. Since its entry into force on 22 Tilmann, page 412. 23 Tilmann, page 411. 24 On October 26, 2000, 19 States were party to the Lisbon Agreement (for a complete list, see http://www.wipo.int/treaties/docs/english/j-lisbon.doc). A Working Group on the Modification of the Regulations under the Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration met from July 10 to 13, 2000, in Geneva (LI/GT/1/1 to 3). A second session of that Working Group is scheduled to take place in March 2001.

page 16 September 25, 1966, 835 appellations of origin have been registered under the Lisbon Agreement, of which 766 are still in force. 25 52. Following the receipt of a notification of registration, a State that is party to the Lisbon Agreement may declare during a period of one year that it cannot protect the appellation of origin which was the subject of the notification. With respect to those registrations made under the Lisbon Agreement, 62 refusals of protection, concerning 51 international registrations, have been entered in the international register. 26 53. According to Article 6 of the Lisbon Agreement, an appellation which has been granted protection in one of the countries party to that Agreement pursuant to the procedure under Article 5 cannot, in that country, be deemed to have become generic, as long as it is protected as an appellation of origin in the country of origin. 54. The scope of protection for internationally registered appellations of origin is broader than the protection for indications of source under the Paris Convention and the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source. Thus, under Article 3 of the Agreement, not only misleading use of a protected appellation of origin is prohibited, but any usurpation or imitation [of the protected appellation of origin], even if the true origin of the product is indicated or if the appellation is used in translated form or accompanied by terms such as kind, type, make, imitation or the like. (d) The TRIPS Agreement 55. Part II, Section 3 of the TRIPS Agreement is dedicated to geographical indications. The general norm of protection is provided by Article 22.2, which reads as follows: 2. In respect of geographical indications, Members shall provide the legal means for interested parties to prevent: (a) the use of any means in the designation or presentation of a good that indicates or suggests that the good in question originates in a geographical area other than the true place of the origin in a manner which misleads the public as to the geographical origin of the good; (b) any use which constitutes an act of unfair competition within the meaning of Article 10bis of the Paris Convention (1967). 56. Article 22.2 is supplemented by Article 22.3 and 22.4. Article 22.3 deals specifically with the registration of trademarks containing or consisting of a geographical indication, for goods not originating in the territory indicated, if the use of those trademarks for such goods would be misleading as to the true place of origin of the goods. The remedy that must be available in that situation is refusal or invalidation of the trademark registration, either ex officio, if the applicable law so allows, or at the request of an interested party. 25 Internationally registered appellations of origin are published in the WIPO periodical Les appellations d origine. Internationally registered appellations of origin are also published on the CD-ROM Romarin. 26 LI/GT/1/2, paragraph 7.

page 17 57. Article 22.4 stipulates that the protection under Article 22.1 to 22.3 must also be made available in respect of the use of deceptive geographical indications, i.e., geographical indications that are literally true, although they falsely represent to the public that the goods on which they are used originate in a different territory. 58. Article 23.1 provides for additional protection for geographical indications for wines and spirits. It reads as follows: Each Member shall provide the legal means for interested parties to prevent use of a geographical indication identifying wines for wines not originating in the place indicated by the geographical indication in question or identifying spirits for spirits not originating in the place indicated by the geographical indication in question, even where the true origin of the goods is indicated or the geographical indication is used in translation or accompanied by expressions such as kind, type, style, imitation or the like. Article 23.1 has a footnote with the following wording: Notwithstanding the first sentence of Article 42, Members may, with respect to these obligations, instead provide for enforcement by administrative action. 59. Article 23.1 is supplemented by a paragraph dealing specifically with the registration of trademarks for wines containing or consisting of a geographical indication for wines, and the registration of a trademark for spirits containing of a geographical indication for spirits, where the wines and spirits in question do not have the indicated geographical origin. Registration of trademarks falling under that provision has to be refused or cancelled, either ex officio if the applicable law so allows, or at the request of an interested party. 60. Article 24 contains a number of exceptions to the obligations under Articles 22 and 23. Broadly speaking, there are three categories of exceptions, namely continued and similar use of geographical indications for wines and spirits, prior good faith trademark rights, and generic designations. 61. The first exception (Article 24.4) gives the right to a WTO Member to allow continued and similar use of a particular geographical indication of another Member identifying wines or spirits, in connection with goods or services by any of its nationals or domiciliaries who have used that geographical indication in a continuous manner with regard to the same or related goods or services in the territory of that Member either for at least 10 years preceding April 15, 1994, or in good faith preceding that date. 62. The second exception relates to rights in trademarks (Article 24.5). It basically states measures to implement the Section on geographical indications by a WTO Member shall not prejudice the registration of trademarks identical with or similar to geographical indications, the application for registration of such trademarks, or the right to use such trademarks, if the following conditions are met: An application for the registration of such a trademark has been filed, or the trademark has been registered, or, where the right to the trademark was acquired by use, that trademark has been used, in good faith, in the WTO Member concerned, before the TRIPS Agreement became applicable in that Member, or before the geographical indication in question is protected in its country of origin.

page 18 63. The third exception (Article 24.6) is related to geographical indications of a WTO Member which are considered by another WTO Member to be a term customary in common language as the common name for goods or services or, where the geographical indication is used for products of the vine, it is identical with the customary name of a grape variety existing in the territory of that Member as of the date of entry into force of the TRIPS Agreement. 64. Furthermore, Article 24.3 of the TRIPS Agreement provides that in implementing the Section of the TRIPS Agreement on geographical indications, a WTO Member shall not diminish the protection of geographical indications that existed in that Member immediately prior to the date of entry into force of the WTO Agreement. III. Attempts to Revise the Multilateral System of Protection after 1958 (a) Preparation in 1974 and 1975 of a New Multilateral Treaty on the Protection of Geographical Indications 65. In 1974, WIPO started work on the preparation of a new multilateral treaty for the protection of appellations of origin and indications of source. After a first session of a Committee of Experts in 1974, the International Bureau of WIPO prepared a draft treaty which was submitted to the second session of the Committee in 1975. The WIPO draft treaty intended to establish a new definition of geographical indication for the purposes of a system of international registration. The new definition was broader than the definition of appellation of origin under the Lisbon Agreement. 27 66. The substantive provisions of the draft treaty were dealt with in two chapters. The first chapter contained a provision according to which the use of denominations, expressions or signs which constitute or directly or indirectly contain false or deceptive geographical indications as to the source of products or services must be prohibited. 67. The second chapter provided for a system of international registration in respect of any geographical indication which fulfills the following conditions: (i) the geographical indication consists of the official or usual name of a State (the filing State ) or of the name of a major circumscription of a State 28 or of a denomination which serves to indicate the source of a product; (ii) the indication is declared by the filing State to be a reference to itself as the State of origin; (iii) the indication is used in the course of trade in relation to products originating in the State, and the said State certifies such use. 68. In most other respects, the system of the draft treaty was similar to the Lisbon Agreement. In particular, the procedure of international registration included the possibility of objections and provided for protection unlimited in time once the international registration 27 TAO/II/2 and 6, respectively. 28 The comments on Article 6 of the draft treaty contain the following explanation: major circumscription should not only cover existing administrative circumscriptions (e.g., Burgundy which is not the name of an administrative entity). The circumscription in question should also be of a certain size and importance, as explained by the use of the adjective major. In the latter connection, some restrictions are called for: the names of communes, for example, should not be able to benefit from absolute protection (TAO/II/2, page 20).