Christal Morehouse Combating Human Trafficking
VS RESEARCH
Christal Morehouse Combating Human Trafficking Policy Gaps and Hidden Political Agendas in the USA and Germany VS RESEARCH
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. Dissertation Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philosophische Fakultät III, 2008 1st Edition 2009 All rights reserved VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften GWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden 2009 Editorial Office: Christina M. Brian / Anita Wilke VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften is part of the specialist publishing group Springer Science+Business Media. www.vs-verlag.de No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. Registered and/or industrial names, trade names, trade descriptions etc. cited in this publication are part of the law for trade-mark protection and may not be used free in any form or by any means even if this is not specifically marked. Cover design: KünkelLopka Medienentwicklung, Heidelberg Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany ISBN 978-3-531-16682-7
Contents List of Figures.................................................. List of Tables................................................... Foreword...................................................... Acknowledgements.............................................. Introduction................................................... 1 International Anti Human Trafficking Policy Frameworks..... 1.1 The Six International Human Trafficking Agreements in Brief.... 1.2 In Depth Analysis of International Human Trafficking Policy Frameworks at the International Level....................... 1.2.1 Demographic Parameters.................................. 1.2.2 Geographic Parameters................................... 1.2.3 Exploitation Parameters................................... 1.2.4 Victim Protection Parameters............................... 1.2.5 International Cooperation Parameters........................ 1.2.6 Criminalization and Punishment Parameters................... 1.3 Additional International Treaties Relevant to Combating Human Trafficking............................................. 1.3.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights................... 1.3.2 The Seven Core International Human Rights Treaties............ 2 Toward a Theoretical Human Trafficking Policy Framework... 2.1 Existing Theoretical Human Trafficking Concepts.............. 2.1.1 Forced Labor........................................... 2.1.2 Irregular Migration Facilitated by Organized Crime............. 2.1.3 Anti Prostitution......................................... 2.2 Building a more Comprehensive Theoretical Concept............ 2.3 Next Steps Toward a Comprehensive Theoretical Concept on Human Trafficking............................................. 9 11 13 15 17 25 25 27 28 32 39 41 53 58 71 71 71 75 75 76 83 87 89 99
6 Contents 3 Anti Human Trafficking Policy Frameworks in The United States of America....................................... 3.1 Historical Roots of Combating Human Trafficking in the United States of America........................................ 3.1.1 The United States Declaration of Independence................ 3.1.2 The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution............................................ 3.2 Organizational Structures of Combating Human Trafficking and Detected Scope in the United States of America................ 3.2.1 Office for Refugees and Resettlement (ORR).................. 3.2.2 Office of Victims of Crime (OVC)........................... 3.2.3 Legal Services Corporation (LSC)........................... 3.2.4 Department of Homeland Security (DHS)..................... 3.2.5 Department of Labor (DoL)................................ 3.2.6 Better Utilizing the Information Available to the United States Government............................................ 3.3 Estimated Magnitude of Human Trafficking in the United States of America............................................... 3.4 Recent Developments in Anti Human Trafficking Policy in the United States of America in Brief............................ 3.4.1 The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000................ 3.4.2 Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003....... 3.4.3 Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005....... 3.4.4 The William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act 2008.................................. 3.5 In Depth Analysis of United States Human Trafficking Policy Frameworks............................................ 3.5.1 Demographic Parameter: Gender-Specificity.................. 3.5.2 Geographic Parameter: Internal Trafficking................... 3.5.3 Exploitation Parameters: Forced Non-Sexual Labor and Trafficking in Human Organs........................................ 3.5.4 Victims Protection Parameter: Victim Access to Legal Residence.............................................. 3.5.5 Criminalization and Punishment Parameters: Links in the Trafficking Chain Including the Consumer and the Commercial Nature of the Crime...................................... 103 104 104 105 106 110 113 114 116 120 121 123 127 127 130 131 133 137 138 143 150 158 163
Contents 7 4 Anti Human Trafficking Policy Frameworks in The Federal Republic of Germany.................................... 4.1 Historical Roots of Combating Human Trafficking in the Federal Republic of Germany and the European Union................. 4.1.1 The Basic Law (Grundgesetz).............................. 4.1.2 European Union Policy Frameworks Prior to 2000.............. 4.2 Organizational Structures of Combating Human Trafficking and Detected Scope in the Federal Republic of Germany............. 4.2.1 The German Federal Police (BKA).......................... 4.2.2 The Federal Working Group on Human Trafficking.............. 4.3 Estimated Magnitude of Human Trafficking in the Federal Republic of Germany............................................ 4.4 Recent Developments in Anti Human Trafficking Policy in the European Union in Brief.................................. 4.4.1 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union Amended in 2000.................................................. 4.4.2 Framework Decision of 2002 on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings Approximating the Criminal Laws of the Member States.... 4.4.3 Council Directive on the Residence Permit Issued to Third-Country Nationals who are Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings 2004............................................ 4.4.4 European Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings Concluded in 2005................................. 4.5 Recent Developments in Anti Human Trafficking Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany in Brief........................ 4.5.1 Introduction of Human Trafficking to the Criminal Code 1992..... 4.5.2 Reform of the German Criminal Code on Human Trafficking 2005. 4.5.3 Migration Reform to Transpose Directives of the European Union 2007.................................................. 4.5.4 The Prostitution Law 2002................................. 4.6 In Depth Analysis of German Human Trafficking Policy Frameworks............................................ 4.6.1 Demographic Parameter: Gender-Specificity.................. 4.6.2 Geographic Parameter: Internal Human Trafficking............. 4.6.3 Exploitation Parameters: Forced Non-Sexual Labor and Trafficking in Human Organs........................................ 4.6.4 Victim Protection Parameter: Victim Access to Legal Residence... 177 177 178 179 182 183 188 190 190 191 191 192 193 194 194 195 197 198 199 200 205 208 215
8 Contents 4.6.5 Criminalization and Punishment Parameters: Links in the Trafficking Chain Including the Consumer and the Commercial Nature of the Crime...................................... 5 Improving Methods for Estimating Human Trafficking Scope.. 5.1 Current Systems of Estimating the Scope of the Human Trafficking Victim Population........................................ 5.2 Developing a Universal System of Estimating the Scope of Human Trafficking............................................. 5.2.1 Putting Forth Indicators for Human Trafficking Scope........... 5.2.2 Documented Cases of Labor Exploitation..................... 5.2.3 Documented Cases of Illegal Prostitution..................... 5.2.4 Documented Profit Traffickers Made from Victims of Human Trafficking............................................ 5.2.5 Documented Cases of Pedophilia or Sex Tourism............... 5.2.6 Documented Cases of ID or Travel Document Fraud............. 5.2.7 Documented Cases of Confinement or Servitude not Classified as Human Trafficking..................................... 5.2.8 Documented Cases of Arranged or Mail-Order Marriages........ 5.3 Next Steps in Establishing Human Trafficking Indicators......... 6 Conclusions............................................ 6.1 Gaps in Conceptual Framework and Definition................. 6.2 Hidden Political Agendas: Migration and Prostitution............ 6.3 Gaps in Data and Reporting................................ 6.4 Gaps in Service Provision................................. 6.5 Gaps in Governance Structures............................. 6.6 Moving the Anti Human Trafficking Agenda Forward............ 222 233 235 243 244 248 249 250 251 251 252 253 254 255 258 259 260 261 262 262 Bibliography................................................... 265 Annex........................................................ 273
List of Figures Figure 1: A Typology of Forced Labor for Statistical Estimation........... 76 Figure 2: A Concept for Depicting the Overlap between Forced Labor and Human Trafficking...................................... 79 Figure 3: A Concept for Depicting the Overlap between Irregular Migration Facilitated by Organized Crime and Human Trafficking......... 83 Figure 4: Modified Human Trafficking Concept in the Context of Migration. 86 Figure 5: A Concept for Depicting the Relationship between Prostitution and Human Trafficking...................................... 88 Figure 6: The Open Circle of Human Trafficking....................... 94 Figure 7: Countries of Detected Human Trafficking Victim Origin in the Federal Republic of Germany.............................. 97 Figure 8: Number of Victims of Human Trafficking Certified by the ORR... 111 Figure 9: Number of Pre-Certified Victims of Human Trafficking Serviced by the Grantees of the OVC............................... 114 Figure 10: Number of Victims of Human Trafficking Assisted by LSC Grantees 115 Figure 11: Number of Victims of Human Trafficking Granted a T-Visa...... 117 Figure 12: Number of Victims of Human Trafficking Granted a Continued Presence Permit........................................ 119 Figure 13: Principal US Government Agencies with Responsibilities for Antitrafficking Programs................................. 144 Figure 14: Number of Detected Human Trafficking Victims in the Federal Republic of Germany from 1994 2007........... 186 Figure 15: Countries of Detected Human Trafficking Victim Origin in the Federal Republic of German from 2003 2007............ 187 Figure 16: Human Trafficking Victims Residence Following the Reflection Period................................................ 216 Figure 17: Human Trafficking Indicators According to Their Level of Importance.......................................... 247 Figure 18: Documented Cases of Labor Exploitation.................... 249 Figure 19: Documented Cases of Illegal Prostitution.................... 249 Figure 20: Documented Profit Traffickers Made from Victims of Human Trafficking in a Given Year................................ 250
10 List of Figures Figure 21: Documented Cases of Pedophilia or Sex Tourism.............. 251 Figure 22: Documented Cases of ID or Travel Document Fraud............ 252 Figure 23: Documented Cases of Confinement or Servitude not Classified as Human Trafficking.................................... 253 Figure 24: Documented Cases of Arranged or Mail-Order Marriages........ 253 Chart A: Organizational Structure of Combating Human Trafficking in the United States of America.............................. 108 Chart B: Organizational Structure of Combating Human Trafficking in the Federal Republic of Germany.......................... 183
List of Tables Table 1: Ethnic-Specificity....................................... 29 Table 2: Age-Specificity......................................... 30 Table 3: Gender-Specificity....................................... 32 Table 4: Euro-Centricity and Signatory of International Treaty............ 35 Table 5: Exclusion of Internal Human Trafficking..................... 38 Table 6: Inclusion of Forced Prostitution............................. 40 Table 7: Inclusion of Forced Non-Sexual Labor and Traffic in Human Organs 41 Table 8: Inclusion of Victim Identification........................... 44 Table 9: Inclusion of Victim Rehabilitation........................... 46 Table 10: Inclusion of Public Awareness.............................. 48 Table 11: Inclusion of Victim Access to Legal Residence................. 52 Table 12: Inclusion of Government Monitoring......................... 53 Table 13: Inclusion of Institutional Coordination....................... 56 Table 14: Inclusion of Extradition................................... 58 Table 15: Criminalization of Links in the Trafficking Chain Including the Consumer.............................................. 62 Table 16: Irrelevance of Victim Consent.............................. 64 Table 17: Criminalization of Attempted Trafficking..................... 65 Table 18: Inclusion of Confiscated Assets............................. 66 Table 19: Inclusion of the Commercial Nature of the Crime............... 68 Table 20: Human Trafficking Parameters............................. 68 Table 21: Identifying Forced Labor in Practice......................... 78 Table 22: Classifying Recent Academic Research according to Typology..... 90 Table 23: Funding Obligated for International Activities to Combat Trafficking in Persons, Fiscal Years 2001 2005................. 109 Table 24: Data on Human Trafficking Maintained by US Government Entities.................................................122 Table 25: Summary of Human Trafficking Parameters................... 175 Table 26: Overview of Human Trafficking Data Sets in Germany.......... 185 Table 27: Summary of Human Trafficking Parameters................... 230 Table 28: Victim Profiles in US Government, ILO, UNODC, and IOM Databases.............................................. 236
12 List of Tables Table 29: Estimated Scope of Prostitution and Sex Trafficking............. 241 Table 30: Indicators of Human Trafficking Scope....................... 245 Table 31: Number of Policy Recommendations According to Issue and Actor. 257
Foreword Human trafficking is one of the most urgent political challenges of our global age. As the UN defines it, human trafficking is essentially a form of non-institutional slavery, but also includes the trafficking of human organs. It has been resistant to abolition and difficult to combat. Human trafficking is organized through networks and is clandestine in nature, making it very hard for governments to even detect. Yet it is arguably the most severe form of human exploitation in the world. Traffickers trade in the immediate human suffering of their goods. Human trafficking is a pressing political issue for two key reasons. First, because its victims are often subjected to virtual slavery, exposing them to severe physical and mental abuse. Their rights are brutally violated and they are robbed of their fundamental freedom and dignity. The severity and estimated scope of this abuse has made the issue a priority for the American and German governments. Second, human trafficking is estimated to be one of the top three sources of income globally, for organized crime. Only trafficking in drugs and arms surpasses human trafficking as a means for such illegal networks to generate funds. Criminal networks undermine the integrity of democratic states and destabilize their social and economic order. Income generated from human trafficking provides such networks with the resources they need to sustain a wide range of harmful activities. For both of these key reasons, governments have recognized human trafficking as a threat to the democratic way of life and to the basic rule of law. Despite its extreme severity, human trafficking has been one of the most difficult phenomena for national governments and the international community to understand, detect and combat. For many years the international community and national governments remained unclear and divided on how to define human trafficking. After numerous attempts, the international community finally established a comprehensive definition in 2000. Yet this definition remains the subject of various arguments and disagreements still today. Experts and governments are constantly refining our understanding of what human trafficking is and the many forms it can take. This book, which was written as a dissertation for doctoral study at the Humboldt University in Berlin, is the result of over five years of research. It provides an original analysis of the issue and is a comparative country analysis of US and German efforts to combat human trafficking. Its purpose is to contribute to the effectiveness of both
14 Foreword governments to combat human trafficking by uncovering evident deficiencies in current policies and methods, and adding to our understanding of what human trafficking is. In particular, the author s analysis of the current state of academic research on human trafficking represents an important addition to our understanding of this complex issue. It indicates that researchers and government agencies tend too often to interpret human trafficking through one of three lenses forced labor, migration or prostitution while ignoring other aspects of the issue. Research and anti human trafficking policies must take a comprehensive view in order to be effective. Hence the author s research goes beyond a deficit analysis. It proposes policies and concepts on how to improve anti human trafficking efforts in both countries. It also provides a schema for policy makers, which they can use to improve their understanding of human trafficking and their anti human trafficking policies. The damaging and corrupting effects of human trafficking resonate far beyond the direct impact it has on its immediate victims; indeed it can be said that they affect our entire society. This book illuminates the highly complex and sensitive issue of human trafficking. Prof. Dr. Rita Süssmuth
Acknowledgements I would like to thank my advisors Prof. Dr. Gert-Joachim Glaeßner and Prof. Dr. Rita Süssmuth for their guidance, expertise and support. I would also like to thank my family, David Barry, Amy Taylor and Michael Steinkopff for their comments and encouragement. Christal Morehouse