Republic of Turkey Migration Profile

Republic of Turkey Migration Profile September 2007

Prepared by: International Organization for Migration (IOM) Publisher: Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Slovenia Front Cover Design: Boris Teodorović Text Design: Branka Derenčin First Edition, first printing: 120 copies Printed by: Mond grafika, d. o. o. Text Unedited Ljubljana, September 2007 2

Prepared by Yelda Devlet Acknowledgements This set of publications is the result of the cooperation of many individuals from within IOM and outside. A special thanks to Christine Aghazarm, Saskia Petit, Alin Chindea, Veronica Escudero, Teuta Grazhdani, Jacqueline Koster, Balazs Lehel, Magdalena Majkowska- Tomkin, Biljana Nastovska, Miriam Neziri, Isabel Pastor, Anna Eva Radicetti, Sarah Schwarz, Jovana Skrnjug, Suna Skupnjak-Kapcic, Mariko Tomiyama, Dusica Zivkovic, Kasia Zaremba, Branka Zulj, and all other IOM staff involved. Although they remain unnamed, thanks are also due to each government official within the respective administrations who provided valuable information. The support of the Government of Slovenia in financing the production of this study is thankfully acknowledged. 3

Foreword Migration patterns and trends have profound consequences for demographic, social and economic conditions. Studying these trends and patters is required for national accounting and planning. Recognizing the above, and in view of its upcoming EU Presidency and its migration agenda therein, the Slovenian government has taken the initiative to request IOM to draft migration profiles (as defined by the European Commission) for Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the Republic of Montenegro, the Republic of Serbia and Turkey. This document was prepared by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) on the basis of publicly available information, analysis and comment, and on IOM s own knowledge. The document is a compilation of existing data and does not purport to be either exhaustive or conclusive. All sources are cited. For clarifications on the definitions, the reader must refer to the original source of the data, where more than one source may be given. The variety of sources might result in inconsistencies due to differences in data collection, definitions, and reference dates used. The results of this exercise point out to the need for agreement on uniform definitions and methodology to record information on emigration and immigration. A general problem is the actual lack of or availability of data per se. Where data exists, the low level of standardization in terms and methodology results in varying degrees of comparability of data. Despite such shortfalls on information available and comparability, it is our hope that this publication raises awareness on migration issues in these countries and provides useful background for policy development. 4

CIA World Factbook. Turkey Basic facts Population (2005) 72,970,000 Total Area 780,580 sq km GDP per Capita PPP USD 7,753 Human Development Index (HDI) Rank 92 of 177 Net Migration Rate -0.7 migrants/1,000 population Sources: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division's World Population Prospects: the 2006 Revision Population Database; UN Development Programme Human Development Report, 2006 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. IMMIGRANTS...8 1.1. Total number of immigrants...8 1.2. Status of immigrants...8 1.3. Main countries of origin of immigrants...10 2. EMIGRANTS...10 2.1. Total number of emigrants...10 2.2. Status of emigrants and countries of destination...10 3. REMITTANCES...12 3.1. Quantitative aspects of remittances...12 3.2. Qualitative aspects of remittances...13 4. MIGRANT COMMUNITIES...14 4.1. Description of relationship between migrant communities/diasporas and country of origin...14 4.2. Migrant communities/diasporas organizations by country of destination...15 5. IRREGULAR MIGRATION...16 5.1. Numbers/estimates of irregular movements...16 5.2. Figures and information on return migration flows...17 6. ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS OF MIGRATION ISSUES...18 6.1. Summary assessment of migration issues...18 6.2. Ministries responsible for migration policy...19 6.3. Migration policies in place...22 6.4. International legal framework in place relevant to migration...23 6.5. Policies to address brain drain...24 6.6. Irregular migration routes and policies to address irregular migration...25 6.7. Trafficking in human beings and policies to address it...26 6.8. Refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons (IDPs) and relevant policies in place...28 6.9. Projects and programmes relevant to migration...30 6.10. Important migration actors within the country...31 6

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Number of Foreigners with Residence Permits in Turkey (2005-2007)...8 Table 2: Non-European refugees and asylum seekers in Turkey (30 th June 2007)...8 Table 3: New non-european asylum applicants (1997 to 30 th June 2007)...9 Table 4: Recognition rates for non-european refugees (1997 to 2006)...9 Table 5: UNHCR Resettlement Departures from Turkey (2000 to 30 th June 2007)...9 Table 6: Statistics regarding Turkish nationals abroad (2005)...10 Table 7: Number of refugees from Turkey by main countries of asylum...11 Table 8: Asylum applicants from Turkey by main countries of asylum...12 Table 9: Amount of incoming migrant remittances...12 Table 10: Worker Remittances and Selected Indicators of Turkey, 1964-2000*...12 Table 11: Irregular migrants apprehended in Turkey...16 Table 12: Third country nationals refused border entry in Turkey...16 Table 13: Turkish nationals apprehended within the EU-25 (2003-2005)...16 Table 14: Statistics on Assisted Voluntary Return (AVR) to Turkey...17 Table 15: Persons removed from Turkey by main countries of origin...17 Table 16: Turkish nationals removed from the EU-15 and EU-10 (2003)...17 Table 17: Statistical Data Related to Trafficking in Human Beings in Turkey 2004-2007..26 Table 18: Number of Victims of Trafficking Assisted by IOM Turkey as of 31/08/2007...26 7

1. Immigrants 1.1. Total number of immigrants ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1,328,405 (2005, UNPD) 1 As percentage of total population-------------------------------------------- 1.8 % (2005, UNPD ) 2 Gender ratio--------------------------------------------------------------52.6% female (2005, UNPD) 3 1.2. Status of immigrants Permanent residence status Table 1: Number of Foreigners with Residence Permits in Turkey (2005-2007) 4 2005 2006 2007 Work 23,184 23,381 23,018 Education 22,650 25,803 26,772 Other 122,284 150,011 157,286 Total 168,118 199,195 207,076 Source: Directorate General of Security, Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum, Turkey. Refugees/asylum-seekers: Table 2: Non-European 5 refugees and asylum seekers in Turkey (30 th June 2007) 6 Location Female % Male % Total % Satellite Cities 7 2,677 42 3,682 58 6,359 61 Ankara 256 40 391 60 647 6 Eastern Border 333 33 690 67 1023 10 Istanbul 886 42 1,229 58 2,115 20 Unknown 125 43 164 57 289 3 Grand Total 4,277 41 6,156 59 10,433 100 Source: UNHCR. 1 United Nations Secretariat, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division [2005]: Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005 Revision. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 4 Directorate General of Security, Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum, Turkey. 5 Turkey imposed a geographical and time limitation to its obligations under the 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees, whereby only European refugees and asylum seekers fleeing events occurring in their home country prior to 1 January 1951 could be granted access to asylum procedures. The time limitation was removed upon signing of the 1967 Protocol, but the geographical limitation remains to this day. It is expected that the geographic limitation will be lifted by 2012. European asylum seekers are those who are coming from countries that are members of the Council of Europe. 6 UNHCR Turkey [2007]: Briefing Note. 7 Following even a positive decision on their application, asylum seekers are assigned to live in one of 25 satellite cities, usually in poor neighbourhoods and in cheap accommodation. 8

Table 3: New non-european asylum applicants (1997 to 30 th June 2007) 8 Year Iranians Iraqis Others Total Cases Persons Cases Persons Cases Persons Cases Persons 1997 746 1,392 1,275 2,939 83 117 2,104 4,448 1998 1,169 1,979 2,350 4,672 124 187 3,643 6,838 1999 2,069 3,843 1,148 2,472 184 290 3,401 6,605 2000 2,125 3,926 791 1,671 108 180 3,024 5,777 2001 1,841 3,485 497 998 372 709 2,710 5,177 2002 1,456 2,505 402 974 219 315 2,077 3,794 2003 1,715 3,092 159 342 373 514 2,247 3,948 2004 1,225 2,030 472 956 540 912 2,237 3,898 2005 1,021 1,716 490 1,047 753 1,151 2,264 3,914 2006 1,343 2,297 364 722 1,094 1,534 2,801 4,553 2007 407 631 853 1,558 717 1,011 1,977 3,200 Source: UNHCR. Table 4: Recognition rates for non-european refugees (1997 to 2006) 9 Year Iranians Iraqis Others Overall Rate Total Recognised Cases Persons 1997 52% 25% 24% 35% 578 unavailable 1998 56% 30% 30% 40% 891 2,230 1999 59% 18% 31% 43% 841 1,903 2000 57% 27% 28% 49% 1,186 2,726 2001 70% 34% 56% 61% 1,287 2,867 2002 72% 38% 35% 63% 1,344 2,885 2003 79% 45% 76% 1,600 3,300 2004 75% - 31% 69% 934 1,748 2005 67% - 36% 59% 736 1,368 2006 90% - 39% 79% 1,051 1,878 Source: UNHCR. Table 5: UNHCR Resettlement Departures from Turkey (2000 to 30 th June 2007) 10 Destination 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Australia 318 154 297 339 313 131 101 54 Austria 1 4 Belgium 6 3 Canada 666 636 679 556 453 189 459 199 Denmark 5 25 267 3 5 1 Finland 162 97 266 71 143 148 119 39 France 4 2 Germany 19 38 75 78 28 4 Ireland 2 Italy 3 Netherlands 10 3 11 5 3 14 1 Norway 62 608 315 263 48 1 New 4 5 12 1 7 8 UNHCR Turkey [2007]: Briefing Note. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 9

Zealand Poland 1 Sweden 122 200 302 109 252 7 2 Switzerland 7 1 1 3 United 6 14 30 9 1 20 2 Kingdom United 952 959 662 1, 488 1,036 762 907 445 States Total 2.334 2.747 2.918 2.935 2.292 1.262 1.609 738 Source: UNHCR 1.3. Main countries of origin of immigrants (in alphabetical order) Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro 11, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, United Kingdom. 12 2. Emigrants 2.1. Total number of emigrants ------------------------------------------------------------------------------4,402,914 (2005, World Bank) 13 As percentage of total population-------------------------------------------6% (2005, World Bank) 14 2.2. Status of emigrants and countries of destination Table 6: Statistics regarding Turkish nationals abroad (2005) 15 Number of Turkish Nationals Employed Turkish Nationals Dependent Independent Total Employee Employee Unemployed Turkish Nationals Unemployment % Turki General sh Country Germany 1,764,041 458,243 64,600 522,843 210,821 32.5 11.7 France 359,034 87,992 5,000 92,992 21,275 25 9.9 The 358,846 118,000 11,500 129,500 13,000 Netherlands* 10.7 6.2 USA 250,000 114,000 -- 114,000 -- -- -- The Great 150,000 50,000 13,000 63,000 4,279 Britain 9.4 4.7 11 As data refers to 2005, it is not disaggregated between Serbia and Montenegro. 12 World Bank, Development Prospects Group [2005]: Migration and Remittances Factbook. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15 Ministry of Labour of the Republic of Turkey, External Relations and Services for Workers Abroad http://www.diyih.gov.tr/yayinlar/dosyalar/pdf/diyih_2005_raporu.pdf 10

Cyprus 146,442 46,010 -- 46,010 -- -- 9.4 Austria 116,882 52,021 3,000 55,021 10,834 17.2 8.7 Saudi Arabia 115,000 115,000 -- 115,000 -- -- -- Switzerland 75,448 34,200 818 35,018 4,382 9.8 3.4 Australia 63,000 23,500 6,000 29,500 5,000 14.5 -- Denmark * 54,859 21,165 2,609 23,774 4,406 20.8 5.8 Greece 48,880 3,563 -- 3,563 -- -- -- Canada 41,000 29,000 -- 29,000 -- -- -- Belgium 39,885 13,412 1,743 15,155 5,416 36 8.5 Sweden 34,965 5,000 -- 5,000 1,500 13.4 5,8 Israel 30,000 6,000 -- 6,000 -- -- 10.3 The Russian 22,808 22,808 -- 22,808 -- Federation -- 9 Norway 15,356 -- -- -- 473 7.3 3.6 Azerbaijan 15,000 10,500 -- 10,500 -- -- 10.7 Italy 14,124 6,414 -- 6,414 -- -- 9 Romania 12,000 3,200 -- 3,200 -- -- -- Kazakhstan 10,000 4,472 1,139 5,611 -- -- -- Lebanon 7,748 188 -- 188 -- -- -- Finland 7,000 -- -- -- -- -- -- Turkmenistan 7,000 6,000 170 6,170 -- -- -- Japan 6,309 1,300 -- 1,300 -- -- -- UAE 5,484 2,650 -- 2,650 -- -- -- Afghanistan 4,500 4,500 -- 4,500 -- -- -- Kyrgyzstan 3,380 1,967 -- 1,967 -- -- -- Kuwait 3,262 2,660 120 2,780 -- -- -- Ukraine 2,250 1,900 -- 1,900 -- -- 3.7 Georgia 2,000 1,000 -- 1,000 -- -- 11.4 Other 42,875 22,881 190 25,293 -- -- -- TOTAL 3,829,378 1,269,546 109,889 1,381,657 281,386 Source: Ministry of Labour, Turkey * Number of dual citizens is included. -- No data available Table 7: Number of refugees from Turkey by main countries of asylum 16 Country 2004 2005 Germany 128,419 122,891 Iraq 13,353 13,332 France 9,387 9,676 United Kingdom 8,602 9,055 Switzerland 5,613 5,501 Other 9,200 10,112 Total 174,574 170,567 Source: UNHCR 16 UNHCR [2005]: Statistical Yearbook. 11

Table 8: Asylum applicants from Turkey by main countries of asylum 17 Country 2004 2005 2006 France 4,741 3,867 2,758 Germany 4,148 2,958 1,949 Austria 1,114 1,064 668 United Kingdom 1,590 950 175 Switzerland 1,154 723 693 Other 3,544 2,093 1,739 Total 16,291 12,465 7,982 Source: UNHCR. 3. Remittances 3.1. Quantitative aspects of remittances Table 9: Amount of incoming migrant remittances 18 Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Remittances (million USD) 4,560 2,786 1,936 729 804 851 Source: World Bank Remittances as % of GDP (2005): 0.2% 19 Remittances as a share of exports (2003): 0.85% 20 Table 10: Worker Remittances and Selected Indicators of Turkey, 1964-2000* 21 Years WRR In % of Imports In % of Exports In % of %GDP 1964 9 1.7 2.2 0.11 1965 70 12.2 15.1 0.83 1966 115 16 23.4 1.14 1967 93 13.6 17.8 0.83 1968 107 14 21.6 0.59 1969 141 17.6 26.3 0.69 1970 273 28.8 46.4 1.53 1971 471 40.2 69.6 2.75 1972 740 47.3 83.6 3.43 1973 1183 56.7 89.8 4.37 1974 1426 37.7 93.1 3.82 1975 1312 27.7 93.6 2.81 17 UNHCR [2005]: Statistical Yearbook; UNHCR [2006]: 2006 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless Persons. 18 World Bank, Development Prospects Group [2005]: Migration and Remittances Factbook. 19 Ibid. 20 World Bank, World Development Indicators database, April 2007. 21 Osman Tuncay, Neyaptı Bilin and Metin Özcan Kıvılcım [2005]: Determinants of Workers Remittances: The Case of Turkey. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. vol. 41(3), pages 53-69, May. Source of figures: Central Bank of Turkey. 12

1976 982 19.1 50.1 1.84 1977 982 16.9 56 1.61 1978 983 21.4 43 1.46 1979 1694 33.4 74.9 1.85 1980 2071 26.2 71.2 3.01 1981 2490 27.9 52.9 3.51 1982 2140 24.2 37.2 3.32 1983 1513 16.4 26.4 2.45 1984 1807 16.8 25.3 3.01 1985 1714 15.1 21.5 2.55 1986 1634 14.7 21.9 2.16 1987 2021 14.3 19.8 2.32 1988 1776 12.4 15.2 1.96 1989 3040 19.3 26.2 2.84 1990 3246 14.6 25 2.15 1991 2819 13.4 20.7 1.87 1992 3008 13.2 20.4 1.88 1993 2919 9.9 19 1.62 1994 2627 11.3 14.5 2.03 1995 3327 9.3 15.4 1.96 1996 3542 8.1 15.3 1.95 1997 4197 8.6 16 2.2 1998 5356 11.7 19.9 2.69 1999 4529 11.1 17 2.4 2000 4560 8.4 16.4 2.29 *All figures (WRR, Imports, Exports and GDP) are used in millions of USD. 3.2. Qualitative aspects of remittances Turkish banks play an important role in the transfer of remittances with special interest rate for foreign currency deposits, and low cost of remittance transfers. 22 In addition to the commercial banks, the Central Bank of Turkey also plays an important role (the total amount of remittance deposit in the Central Bank of Turkey was 14 billion in 2004). 23 However, informal transfers constitute also a significant part, although their scale is difficult to estimate. Remittances are spent mainly on consumption items, subsistence of family members, in some cases investment in property. They have proven to considerably increase the welfare of the receiving families 24 even though they are not used for productive investment. 22 Manuel Orozco [2003]: Worker Remittances: An International Comparison. Inter-American Dialogue, Project commissioned by the Multilateral Investment Fund of the Inter-American Development Bank. http://www.thedialogue.org/publications/country_studies/remittances/workerremittances.pdf 23 Đçduygu, A. [2005] International Migrants Remittances in Turkey. Analytic Synthetic Notes Demographic& Economic Module. CARIM-AS 2006/2007, European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (Florence). 24 Ibid. 13

The findings of 1996 Turkish International Migration Survey TIMS-96 show that 12%of all households received remittances of some kind: 54% of recipients received cash, 18% goods and the remaining part a combination of cash and goods. 80% of remittancereceiving Turkish households spend them on daily expenses, 7% on medical bills, 4% for expenses related with marriage and 3% for land or house purchase. 12.9% of remittance receiving households declared that their income is insufficient, whereas the same ratio for households not receiving remittances was 43.3%. 25 4. Migrant communities 4.1. Description of relationship between migrant communities/diasporas and country of origin Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Directorate of Turks Living Abroad, Migration, Asylum and Property Department for Expatriate Turks is responsible for: Legal migration of Turkish citizens Issues related to the Turkish citizens integration to the host societies Relations with associations of Turkish and Turkish-origin people Attendance of the Migration Committee of the Council of Europe Liaison with International Labour Organization in the field of Legal Migration. Vacation Illumination project Meetings of the Inter-ministerial Joint Commission for Culture Examination, assignment and personnel rights of the teachers and religious personnel to be assigned at abroad Bilateral social security issues International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı, Dr. Sadık Ahmet Cad. No: 8 Balgat 06100 Ankara Tel: +312-292 21 20 +312-292 21 22, Fax: +312-292 27 21 Ministry of Labour of the Republic of Turkey\ External Relations and Services for Workers Abroad aims to: - to provide the necessary coordination with the institutions in and outside of the country in order to protect and enhance the rights and benefits on working life and social security of Turkish citizens working abroad and to solve problems they interface in countries they work and through their return. - to follow up the employment abroad, to conduct research on Turkish employment abroad, to prepare labour agreements and to develop policies in order to implement them 25 Koc, I., Onan, I. [2004]: The Impact of Remittances of International Migrants on the Standard of Living of The Left-Behind Families in Turkey. International Migration Review, 38 (1), pp.78-112. 14

- to coordinate the personnel working for the ministry, to control the implementation of the social security agreements through offices abroad and to provide facilitation on that. - To liaise with international organizations working in the area of work and social security abroad. Đnönü Bulvarı No: 42 Emek/Ankara/Turkey Tel: +312-296 60 00, fax: +312-215 23 12 E-mail: dihiy@csgb.gov.tr 4.2. Migrant communities/diasporas organizations by country of destination (Please note the lists below do not purport to be exhaustive or representative. IOM does not take responsibility for the accuracy of the contact details). Assembly of Turkish American Associations (ATAA) was co-founded by the American Turkish Association of Washington and the Maryland American Turkish Association in an effort to create a national organization representing the Turkish American community. It represents 65 Turkish American Associations across U.S., Canada and Turkey http://www.ataa.org 1526 18th St, NW, Washington, DC 20036 Tel: +202-483-9090, Fax: +202-483-9092 Belgium Turkish Workers Social Solidarity and Culture Association Rue Auguste Gevaert, 39 1070 Anderlecht Tel: +32 2/521 54 52 Federation of Turkish American Association is a non-profit organization established in 1956 for the purpose of supporting the Turkish community within the United States. http://www.tadf.org 821 Un Plaza, 2 nd floor, 1 st Ave and 46 th street, New York, NY 10017 E-mail: tadfoffice@tadf.org South Australia Turkish Association Kilburn Community Centre, 59 Gladstone Avenue, Kilburn, S.A.5084 P.O.Box 107 Prospect S.A.5082 http://groups.msn.com/guneyavustralyaturkdernegi, E-mail address: GuneyAvustralyaTurkDernegi@groups.msn.com Turkish-British Chamber of Commerce and Industry (TBCCI) was founded in 1980 as a non-profit making organization to provide its members with a wide range of services targeted at promoting bilateral trade, investment and joint ventures between the UK and Turkey. http://www.tbcci.org e-mail: info@tbcci.org Tel: +44 20 7321 0999, Fax:020 7321 0989 Turkish Canadian Cultural Association of Ottawa http://turkishcanadian.org, P.O.Box 6687 Station J, Ottawa, ON, K2A 3Y7 E-mail address: dernek@canada.com Turkish Canadian Society www.vancouverturkishsociety.org, 185-9040 Blundell Rd. Box: 331 Richmond B.C. V6Y 1K3 15

The Turkish-German-Health-Donation http://www.tdg-stiftung.de/cms/index.php?l=en&menuloc=g&&linkid=79 Friedrichstr. 13 35392 - Giessen Tel: 0641-966 116 0 Fax: 0641-966 116-29 Email: tdg.stiftung@freenet.de Turkish Islam Union in Germany http://www.diyanet.org/tr/anasayfa/index.php 5. Irregular Migration 5.1. Numbers/estimates of irregular movements Table 11: Irregular migrants apprehended in Turkey 26 Apprehended Year Irregular Migrants Apprehended Human Smugglers 2000 94,514 850 2001 92,365 1,155 2002 82,825 1,157 2003 56,219 937 2004 61,228 957 2005 57,428 834 2006 51,938 951 Total 496,517 6,841 Source: Directorate General of Security, Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum Table 12: Third country nationals refused border entry in Turkey 27 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 TOTAL 24,504 15,208 11,084 9,362 11,093 8,008 6,001 3,835 89,095 Source: Directorate General of Security, Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum Table 13: Turkish nationals apprehended within the EU-25 (2003-2005) 28 2003 2004 2005 ------ 12,568 7,835 Source: European Commission, 2006. 26 Directorate General of Security, Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum http://www.mfa.gov.tr/mfa/foreignpolicy/mainissues/turkeyonillegalmigration/ 27 Directorate General of Security, Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum 28 EC [2006]: Second annual report on the development of a common policy on illegal immigration, smuggling and trafficking of human beings, external border controls, and the return of illegal residents. 16

5.2. Figures and information on return migration flows Table 14: Statistics on Assisted Voluntary Return (AVR) to Turkey 2005 2006 2007 11 Sri Lanka 1 India 1 Congo 2 Gambia 2 Afghanistan 1 Nigeria 10 Afghanistan 2 Cameroon 1 Dominican Republic 5 Sri Lanka 3 Turkmenistan 1 Kyrgyzstan 1 Madagascar 1 Ukraine 2 Ethiopia 1 Morocco 6 Sri Lanka 3 Turkmen 1 Congo 1 Eritrea Total: 18 Total: 22 Total: 16 Source: IOM Turkey. Table 15: Persons removed from Turkey by main countries of origin 29 Country 2004 2005 Pakistan 9,396 11,001 Iraq 6,393 3,591 Moldova 5,728 3,462 Afghanistan 3,442 2,363 Bangladesh 3,271 1,524 Georgia 2,294 2,348 Romania 1,785 1,274 Azerbaijan 1,591 1,410 Germany 1,477 -- Ukraine 1,341 1,335 Russia -- 1,152 Total (for all countries) 55,777 44,302 Source: ICMPD Table 16: Turkish nationals removed from the EU-15 and EU-10 (2003) 30 Country Number The Netherlands 4,477 Germany 4,310 France 630 Greece 362 Cyprus 288 Slovenia 215 Bulgaria 168 Sweden 161 Finland 92 29 ICMPD [2005]: Yearbook on Illegal Migration, Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Central and Eastern Europe, Vienna. 30 European Commission [2003]: Annual Report on Asylum and Migration http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/doc_centre/asylum/statistics/doc_annual_report_2003_en.htm 17

Romania 89 Hungary 82 Lithuania 24 Malta 21 Latvia 9 Total 10,928 Source: European Commission, 2003. 6. Assessment and analysis of migration issues 6.1. Summary assessment of migration issues Throughout history Turkey has been affected by diverse forms of migratory movements and refugee flows. Traditionally Turkey has been a country of emigration with large numbers of its citizens migrating to Western Europe, particularly Germany since the 1970s. Based on a bilateral labour agreement, Turkish guest workers migrated to West Germany and in spite of expectations, remained there and settled with their families. Europe s oil recession in the 1970s redirected the flows of the Turkish migrant labour force to Middle East, and in the 1990s to the Russian Federation and Commonwealth of Independent States. As a result of emigration, remittance flows have been an important input to the country s economy since 1960s. Turkey has also significant refugee population abroad as well as internally displaced population, mainly due to the internal conflict between Turkish armed forces and the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) between 1984 and 1999. Since the early 1990s the country has been positioned on the transit route for irregular migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iraq, Iran and Pakistan. 31 Turkey remains a destination for human trafficking in Black Sea region and victims from Moldova, Ukraine, Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan in particular. It has also long been a country of destination for migrants, be it economic migrants or refugees or asylum seekers. It has recently emerged as a destination for migrants from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, as these new migrants envisage Turkey as a gateway to a new job, new life and a stepping stone to employment in the West. The Iranian revolution, political turmoil in the Middle East, the end of the Cold War, the Gulf War, and Turkey's geographical location as a transit zone between the West and the rest all contributed as historical events and forces to turn Turkey into a de facto country of first asylum. 32 The country maintains the geographical limitation to the applicability of the Geneva Convention on the Status of Refugees (granting the refugee status only to European asylum seekers). It has until recently ranked in the top three countries globally for resettlement of non-european refugees with main countries of destination of 31 Kirişçi, K. [2003]: Turkey: A Transformation from Emigration to Immigration. Migration Information Source. www.migrationinformation.org/profiles/print.cfm?id=176 32 Icduygu A., Keymanö E. F. [2000]: Global Governance. Volume: 6. Issue: 3. p: 383. Lynne Rienner Publishers. 18

resettlement being USA, Canada and Australia. Migration issues in Turkey are shaped by its efforts to become a member of the European Union which are creating pressures for an overhaul of immigration and asylum policies in the country. The alignment of Turkey s migration policy and practice to the EU migration acquis and policies is one of the conditions for the country s accession. Another issue of discussion in Europe is related to Turkey s potential membership to EU which is considered as a potential massive wave of immigration from Turkey to the more prosperous members of the union. 6.2. Ministries responsible for migration policy Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum, Directorate General of Security, Ministry of Interior The Directorate General of Security under the responsibility of the Ministry of Interior is the state institution responsible from the internal security. The Directorate is also responsible for the coordination and implementation of the integrated border management. The duties of the Department of Foreigners, Border and Asylum include: - management and implementation of relevant procedures regarding visa, passports, residence permits and regulations regarding diplomatic missions and consulate members; - co-ordination of the procedures regarding the passports - border management - asylum requests of the aliens who enter Turkey through legal/illegal ways; - reception of refugees and asylum seekers - applications for residence from persons with Turkish ethnicity or foreigners who have close links with Turkish culture - applications for Turkish citizenship - co-ordination the national referral system on combating trafficking. Head of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum Department Tel: +90 312 412 32 10 http://www.egm.gov.tr ; www.icisleri.gov.tr General Command of Gendarmerie The Gendarmerie of the Republic of Turkey, which is responsible for the maintenance of safety and public order as well as carrying out other duties assigned by laws and regulations, is an armed security and law enforcement force, having military nature. As a part of Turkish Armed Forces, the General Command of the Gendarmerie is subordinated to the General Staff in matters related to training and education in connection with the Armed Forces and to the Ministry of Interior in matters related to the performance of the safety and public order duties. However, the General Commander of Gendarmerie is responsible to the Ministry of Interior. In general, the duty and responsibility area of the Gendarmerie is outside the Police duty zone. These are the places outside the municipal boundaries of the provinces and districts and having no police organizations. The 19

Gendarmerie is responsible for the performance of the safety and public order in above mentioned zones. The Gendarmerie of the Republic of Turkey is also responsible for combating migrant smuggling and trafficking in human beings and coordinating the final situation with the Ministry of Interior. Tel: +312 456 78 50 http://www.jandarma.tsk.mil.tr/ Ministry for Foreign Affairs The Republic of Turkey, which had a total of 39 missions abroad in 1924, is now represented by 164 missions throughout the world. These missions comprise of 94 Embassies, 11 Permanent Missions to international organizations and 59 Consulate Generals. Serving under the leadership of the 41st Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Ali Babacan, the Turkish Foreign Service consisting of a total of 905 diplomats at the Ministry and its missions abroad, continues to operate with its resources and number of personnel to conduct and further promote international political, economic and cultural relations in the bilateral and multilateral context as well as to contribute to peace, stability and prosperity in the region and beyond. Additionally, the ministry is also responsible for chairing the National Task Force on Combating Trafficking. Department for Illegal Migration and Asylum Under the responsibility of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Department of Asylum and Migration is the government entity in charge of the policies mainly related to illegal migration, migrant smuggling and trafficking in human beings. In particular the Department deals with the following tasks: Preparation of bilateral readmission agreements, bilateral cooperation protocols on combating trafficking, negotiations and ratification for all the countries on illegal migration, migrant smuggling and trafficking in human beings Combating illegal migration, trafficking in human beings (THB), border management and cooperation in legal and criminal affairs in these areas in line with the implementation of EU acquis communitaire Turkey- EU Readmission agreement negotiations Harmonization activities with the EU/Schengen Acquis Combating trafficking (coordinated by the Ministry of Interior) Contribution to Integrated Border Management (twinning) projects Liaison with IOM and UNHCR Activities regarding implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings Presidency for Budapest Process on illegal migration and trafficking in human beings and participation in similar organizations Issues related to asylum and migration requests to Turkey Implementation of the National Action Plan on Asylum and Migration and organization of the Office on Migration and Asylum To follow up on issues regarding EU refugee policy and harmonization of the legislation in this area Ambassador, Director General for Consular Affairs Tel: +90 312 292 20 83-84 Deputy Director General for Expatriate Turks Asylum Migration and Property Issues 20

Tel: +90 312 292 21 20 Head of Department of Asylum and Illegal Migration Tel: +90 312 292 20 56 http://www.mfa.gov.tr/mfa Ministry of Justice Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Turkey is responsible for prosecution related issues. The ministry carries out its responsibilities through its several departments mostly including Directorate of Law, Directorate of International Law and External Affairs, Department of Prosecution Affairs, Directorate of EU Affairs, Department of Criminal Registration and Statistics. Ministry of Justice is one of the key stakeholders participating in the National Task Force on Migration. The Ministry is involved in the migration related affairs through its Directorate of Law (contribution to migration-related legislation); through its Directorate of International Law and External Affairs in order to inform the implementation and provide comments on the international conventions, and finally through its Directorate of EU Affairs in order to facilitate legal issues of concern to the EU accession process. General Directorate of International Law and Foreign Relations Tel: +90 312 414 78 15 General Directorate of Laws Tel: +90 312 418 67 48 General Directorate of Prosecution Affairs Tel: +90 312 414 74 20 General Directorate of Criminal Registration and Statistics Tel: +90 312 414 85 75 http://www.adalet.gov.tr/ State Planning Organization State Planning Organization (SPO) was founded in 1960 with aim of accelerating Turkey s development. It works under the Prime Ministry. SPO works as a consultancy organization for government in identifying its economic, social and cultural aims. Moreover, SPO prepares development plans and annual plans in order to implement the Government programme and fulfil its objectives, which are: - To identify natural, social and economic sources and opportunities of the country and consult the government for the identification of the social, economic and cultural aims. - To prepare development plans in line with the priorities of the government - To coordinate the social, economic and cultural activities of governmental bodies - To comment on the management of the related institutions and local administrations in order to be implement development programmes and plans efficiently. Tel: +90 312 294 50 00 http://www.dpt.gov.tr/ 21

Turkish Statistical Institute TURKSTAT is responsible for the gathering of the official statistics including those related to migration, determining methods of data collection, statistical definitions and classifications in cooperation with national and international institutes and organizations, forming of national registration system, developing research and technical assistance projects when needed. Telephone: 00 90 312 410 04 10 http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/ Ministry of Labour and Social Security The main responsibilities of the ministry include the regulation of the relations between employers and employees, ensuring employment, workers health, job security, monitoring the working practices, provision of social welfare, services for the Turkish workers abroad, consolidating and publishing relevant statistics. Tel: +90 312 212 14 72, + 90 312 296 60 00 http://www.calisma.gov.tr/ 6.3. Migration policies in place In line with Turkey s aspirations to join the European Union and its candidacy status, Turkish government is assuming efforts and resources to align its migration policies with the migration-related EU acquis communitaire and policies. Accession Partnership document outlines the changes necessary in terms of management of migration. National Action Plan on the implementation of Integrated Border Management strategy was accepted in 2006 in Turkey and it can be considered as the preliminary step forward in line with the EU accession process. Meanwhile, there is a need for the enhancement of administrative capacity for the harmonization and implementation of the acquis. A Task Force for the National Action Plan for the Adoption of the EU Acquis in the Field of Asylum and Migration bringing together officials from relevant ministries and organizations was established in 2004. The Task Force convened in November and December 2004 and drafted the Action Plan, which was endorsed by the Prime Minster in March 2005. The Action Plan for the Adoption of the EU Acquis in the Field of Asylum and Migration includes the legislation, the development projects complementing the administrative structure and the physical infrastructure relating to Turkey s asylum, migration and immigration system that should be harmonized with the EU acquis and policy. 33 Turkey imposed a geographical and time limitation to its obligations under the 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees, whereby only European refugees and asylum seekers fleeing events occurring in their home country prior to 1 January 1951 could be granted access to asylum procedures. The time limitation was removed upon signing of the 1967 Protocol, but the geographical limitation remains to this day. Through the National Action Plan, the Government proposes to lift the geographic limitation to its 33 Turkish National Action Plan for the Adoption of the EU Acquis in the Field of Asylum and Migration can be reached at http://www.unhcr.org.tr/mep/ftproot/dosyalar/anasayfa/eu%20acquis%20book_eng.pdf 22

obligations under 1951 Convention by 2012, on the condition that the legal and institutional arrangements for asylum and understandings on burden sharing with the EU are in place. 34 Turkey is also in the process of adopting the EU Schengen visa system, which requires member countries to apply a common visa policy to third-country nationals which will probably require Turkey's current, relatively liberal visa system with a much stricter one. 35 Visa requirement for a number of states have been introduced, specifically towards countries in the Middle East and Central Asia. 36 In 2003 Turkey ratified the Law on Work Permits for Foreigners, which liberalised access by foreigners to certain occupation, previously open to Turkish nationals only. 37 The work permit in Turkey is not issued directly to the foreigner himself but to the employer instead. The Ministry of Labour and Social Security is the responsible institution for applications for the foreigner work permits. 38 The Ministry carries out the labour market test, i.e. if the vacancy can be filled by a Turkish national, the application for the work permit is rejected. This provision results in much of the low-skilled employment to enter the informal economy. 6.4. International legal framework in place relevant to migration Selected International Instruments 39 - The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1962) (with a geographical limitation clause bounding application only to European asylum seekers) - The 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (1968) - The 1990 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (2004) - The 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (2003) - The 2000 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air (2003) - International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 1965, ratified 16/09/2002 - International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966, ratified 23/09/2003 - International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966, ratified 23/09/2003 - Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 1979, acceded to 20/12/1985 - Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1984, ratified 25/06/1999 - Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989, ratified 04/04/1995 34 UNHCR Turkey [2007]: Turkey Briefing Note. 35 Kirişçi, K. [2003]: Turkey: A Transformation from Emigration to Immigration. Migration Information Source www.migrationinformation.org/profiles/print.cfm?id=176 36 Hecker, P. [2006]: Turkey Country Profile. Hamburg Institute of International Economics, Netzwerk Migration in Europa, Bundeszcentrale fur politische Bildung. 37 Ibid. 38 www.çalışmaizni.gov.tr 39 United Nations Treaty Collection. Data available online, as of 31 December 2005, at: http://untreaty.un.org. 23

- International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, ratified 27/09/2004 - European Convention on Human Rights, 18/05/1954 Readmission Agreements - Greece 8 November 2003 - Syria 10 October 2001 - Romania 16 January 2004 - Kyrgyzstan 6 May 2003 - Ukraine 8 June 2005 Turkey is in the process of negotiating readmission agreements with the European Community, Bulgaria, Libya, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Italy, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Russia and Pakistan. Bilateral Labour Agreements of Turkey - Germany 30 October1961 - Australia 5 October 1967 - Austria 15 May 2964 - Belgium 16 July 1964 - France 8 April 1965 - The Netherlands 19 August 1964 - Jordan 8 July 1982 - Sweden 10 March 1967 - Qatar 1 April 1986 - Cyprus 9 March 1987 - Libya 5 January 1975 6.5. Policies to address brain drain Turkey is among the top ten sending countries in terms of the number of students studying in US higher education institutions. The number of Turkish students in the US grew to about 12,500 in the 2004-2005 academic year, according to the Institute for International Education, 2005. 40 According to the UNESCO statistics, approximately 52,000 Turkish students studied abroad in 2004, mainly in Germany, USA, France and England, which made Turkey the 7th highest ranking country in terms of gross outflow of students for that year (UNESCO, 2006). 41 These figures indicate that brain drain is an important issue for Turkey. A high incidence of student non-return results in difficulties for newly established universities to recruit qualified academic staff. 42 Training of individuals for academic positions at domestic institutions, supporting study abroad for shorter periods and improving academic facilities in the newly established universities are some of the suggested solutions. The State Planning Organization supports domestic training of individuals and TUBITAK (The 40 Gungor, N. D. and Aysitö T. [2007]: Brain Drain from Turkey: The Case of Professionals Abroad.. IZA Discussion Paper No. 2617 Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=962373 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 24

Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) supports short term postdoctoral training abroad. 6.6. Irregular migration routes and policies to address irregular migration Due to its geo-political location, Turkey is on a major migration route with significant number of irregular immigrants from its East trying to cross Turkey towards wealthy Europe. Approximately 500,000 migrants were apprehended in Turkey within the period of 2000-2006. Much of irregular immigration within Turkey is conducted by internationally organized networks. Irregular migration flows into Turkey can be divided into three main groups. The first involves migrants coming from Ukraine or Moldova, who come to Turkey in order to find better living standards and work. Many of these migrants are employed by Turkish farmers, construction companies and families (as domestic workers) in Turkey. The second irregular migrant group involves people mainly coming from the Middle East (mostly Iranian and Iraqis) and Asia (mostly Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka). These migrant often consider Turkey as a transit zone while they try to enter Europe. The third group of irregular migrants includes rejected asylum seekers, who do not wish to return home and look for possible employment opportunities in order to migrate to another country. 43 Turkey signed the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Additional Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air. This agreement and its addition were accepted in Turkish Grand National Assembly on 18 March 2003. 44 The article 79 of the new Turkish Penal Code Law No: 5237 which was put into force on 1 June 2005, defines migrant smuggling. This article introduces a provision stipulating penalties of 3 to 8 years of imprisonment and 10,000 days judicial fines to migrant smugglers. If the crime is committed by perpetrators acting as an organization, the penalty to be imposed shall be increased by half. Article 79 also provides for coercive measures (confiscation of assets) on legal entities involved in migrant smuggling. The Road Transportation Law came into force on 19 July 2003 and the Road Transportation Regulation became effective in 2004. The regulation states that transportation permit shall be cancelled for 3 years and the vehicle used will be seized if the person is sentenced for migrant smuggling. Readmission Agreements were signed with Greece, Syria, Kyrgyzstan, Romania and Ukraine. Negotiations are ongoing with the European Commission regarding the EU-wide Readmission Agreement. An Action Plan for Implementing Integrated Border Management Strategy was signed by the Prime Minister in March 2006 and submitted to the EU Commission. Since 1997, Turkey actively takes part in Border Police Conferences, EU Illegal Migration and Violation of Borders (CIREFI) and Bern Initiative activities. The Bern Initiative aims at defining the principles which would increase the responsibilities of states, a roadmap for migration policies and programs to be developed by governments and a common 43 Đçduygu, A. [2003]: Irregular Migration to Turkey, IOM, Migration Research Series, No.12, Bilkent University, Turkey 44 http://www.mfa.gov.tr/mfa/foreignpolicy/mainissues/turkeyonillegalmigration/ 25

understanding between countries. In January 2006 Turkey took over the Presidency of the Budapest Process. 45 6.7. Trafficking in human beings and policies to address it 46 Turkey is a major destination and transit country for human trafficking for sexual exploitation because of its proximity to main source countries. The vast majority of women and girls trafficked to Turkey come from the former Soviet Union, with sixty percent of all cases from two countries, Moldova and Ukraine. Majority of the victims of human trafficking identified in Turkey are between 18 to 24 years old, with mainly secondary school education. Istanbul, Antalya and Trabzon are the main ports of entry for trafficked individuals, majority of whom enter Turkey legally under tourist visa. A small number of men from Turkey were trafficked to the Netherlands for the purpose of forced labour in 2006. In 2006 victims were also trafficked from Kenya, Nigeria, and the Philippines. 47 More than one third of women trafficked to Turkey are mothers with children and illegal profits from trafficking top more than 1 billion USD annually. The vast majority of victims recruited to Turkey had a personal relationship with their recruiter. 48 Table 17: Statistical Data Related to Trafficking in Human Beings in Turkey 2004-2007 49 Year Number of identified victims by Turkish Ministry of Interior* Number of victims voluntarily returned by IOM Turkey Number of human traffickers apprehended 2004 239 62 227 2005 256 220 379 2006 246 191 422 2007 (until June) 125 99 278 Total 866 572 1,306 Source: Directorate General of Security, Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum, Turkey, 2007. *The number of victims of human trafficking, who received accommodation, medical and psychological assistance in shelters between November 2004 and February 2007. Table 18: Number of Victims of Trafficking Assisted by IOM Turkey as of 31/08/2007 2004 2005 2006 2007 Country of Origin adults minors adults minors adults minors adults minors Total Azerbaijan 3 0 2 0 6 3 3 17 Armenia 0 0 1 0 1 Belarus 1 0 5 0 1 0 7 45 Budapest Process is an inter-governmental unofficial cooperation and dialogue forum which involves 50 countries governments and 10 International Organizations and aims to prevent illegal migration, to ensure permanent solutions in combating against illegal migration, and to establish sustainable mechanisms in the field of migration management. 46 http://www.mfa.gov.tr/mfa/foreignpolicy/mainissues/turkeyontraficinginhumanbeings/ 47 US Department of State [2007]: Trafficking in Persons Report 2007. 48 IOM Turkey [2005]: 2005: Turkey, Trafficking & Trends. 49 Directorate General of Security, Department of Foreigners, Borders and Asylum. 26

Bulgaria 0 0 2 0 6 8 Colombia 1 0 0 0 0 1 Georgia 0 0 3 0 2 0 3 8 Kazakhstan 1 0 6 0 1 0 8 Kyrgyzstan 0 0 19 1 23 1 12 1 57 Moldova 33 1 62 2 59 0 34 1 192 Romania 5 1 9 2 0 17 Russian Federation 2 0 28 1 37 2 13 2 85 Turkmenistan 1 0 2 0 4 0 11 18 Uganda 0 0 1 0 0 1 Ukraine 12 0 65 1 29 4 5 116 Uzbekistan 1 0 11 0 16 0 7 35 Tunisia 1 1 Total 60 2 213 7 181 10 95 4 572 Grand Total 62 220 191 99 572 Source: IOM Turkey. Turkey ratified the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and its Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children. Trafficking in human beings was first defined in Turkish Penal Code in 2001, in accordance with the Protocol, with the prison-term for this crime set to up from 8 to 12 years. In 2006, the term forced prostitution was added to the definition of human trafficking to be punished under the provisions of Article 80. The Ministry of Labour and Social Security was authorized to prevent uncontrolled employment of foreign labour and to grant work permits to foreigners under the Law on Work Permits for Foreigners effective since 6 September 2003. In 2003 an amendment was made to the Citizenship Law in order to prevent foreigners marrying Turkish citizens and claiming Turkish citizenship simply through a declaration at the time of marriage. This puts an end to traffickers exploiting this provision for their benefit. The National Task Force on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings has been established in 2002. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs chairs the task force and is the national coordinator. Turkey s first Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking was prepared by the Task Force and is being currently implemented. A national referral mechanism has been established in Turkey to protect and meet the needs of trafficked persons, to co-ordinate counter human trafficking efforts with the countries of origin and to prosecute those responsible. Participating in this mechanism are national law enforcement agencies, non-governmental organizations, Turkish and foreign embassies and IOM. The system is designed to ensure effective and expedient coordination of the major stakeholders involved in combating human trafficking and providing assistance to trafficked persons. In cooperation with IOM, leaflets in Turkish, Russian and English were produced and distributed in border crossings, especially in Istanbul, Ankara, Trabzon air and sea ports 27