Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized THE POLITICS OF SERVICE DELIVERY IN PAKISTAN: Political Parties and the Incentives for Patronage, 1988-1999 Zahid Hasnain May 2005 Report No. SASPR-6 32878 SOUTH ASIA REGION PREM WORKING PAPER SERIES A WORLD BANK DOCUMENT A WORLD BANK DOCUMENT The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the The findings, World Bank, interpretations, to its affiliated and organizations, conclusions expressed or to members in thisof paper its Board are entirely of Executive those Directors of the author(s) the countries and should they not represent. be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.
The Politics of Service Delivery in Pakistan: Political Parties and the Incentives for Patronage 1988-1999 Zahid Hasnain Economist, The World Bank May 2005
About the SASPR Working Paper Series The purpose of the SASPR Working Paper Series is to provide a quick outlet for sharing more broadly research/analysis of issues related to development in South Asia. Although the primary source of such research/analysis in SASPR staff, other contributors are most welcome to use this outlet for rapid publication of their research that is relevant to South Asia s development. The papers are informal in nature and basically represent views/analysis of the concerned author(s). All papers submitted for publication are sent for an outside review to assure quality. I provide only a very light editorial touch. For enquiries about submission of papers for publication in the series or for copies of published papers, please contact Naomi Dass (telephone number 202-458- 0335). Sadiq Ahmed Sector Director South Asia Poverty Reduction and Economic Management World Bank, Washington D.C.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction...1 2. Pakistan s poor service delivery: poor expenditure patterns and poor sector governance... 3 2.1. Poor expenditure patterns... 5 2.2. Quality of sector governance... 8 3. Some common political economy explanations elite capture and political instability... 11 4. The incentives for patronage in a democracy...13 5. The structure of political parties and the incentives for patronage...16 5.1. Party fragmentation... 18 5.2. Party factionalism... 18 5.3. Party polarization... 21 6. Conclusion...23 7. References... 27 Figures Figure 1: The outline of the argument... 2 Figure 2: Consolidated government expenditures on education and health, as % of GDP... 4 Figure 3: Number of primary schools Pakistan, 1980-2000... 5 Figure 4: Number of primary teachers Pakistan, 1980-2000... 5 Figure 5: Number of primary schools in Sindh, 1980-2000... 5 Figure 6: Number of primary teachers in Sindh, 1980-2000... 5 Figure 7: Share of non-salary expenditure in education (as percent of total expenditure)... 7 Figure 8: Share of non-salary expenditure in health (as percent of total expenditure)... 7 Figure 9: Percentage of girls primary schools with latrines... 7 Figure 10:Percentage of girls primary schools with boundary walls... 7 Figure 11:Cumulative results of TPV for the Social Action Program (1998-2001)... 9 Figure 12:Voter turnout in national and provincial assembly elections (1988-97)... 12 Figure 13:Sectoral expenditures from funds allocated to members of national assembly... 15 Figure 14:Average number of candidates competing per seat in provincial assembly elections.. 18 Figure 15:Percentage of incumbents competing provincial assembly elections... 19 Tables Table 1: Pakistan -- key social indicators... 3 Table 2: Trends in provincial employment... 6 Table 3: Access to public primary education in Pakistan (2001/02)... 6 Table 4: Average tenure (in months) of secretaries in key departments... 10 Table 5: Percentage of seats won by independent candidates in provincial assembly elections. 11 Table 6: Household satisfaction with public services (Pakistan)... 14
Table 7: Reasons why citizens contact a union councilor in Pakistan... 16 Table 8: Percentage of incumbents competing provincial assembly elections on same party... 20 Table 9: Characteristics of party competition in the provinces... 22 Table 10: Summary of relationship between provincial political economy factors... 23
Abstract This paper examines the impact of political party structure on the incentives for politicians to focus on patronage versus service delivery improvements in Pakistan. By analyzing interprovincial variations in the quality of service delivery in Pakistan, the paper argues that the more fragmented, factionalized, and polarized the party systems, the greater the incentives for patronage and the weaker for service delivery improvements. Fragmentation and factionalism both exacerbate the informational problems that voters had in assigning credit (blame) for service delivery improvements (deterioration), and thereby created incentives for politicians to focus on targeted benefits. Polarization, particularly ethnic polarization, reduces the ability of groups to agree on the provision of public goods, thereby again causing politicians to favor the delivery of targeted benefits.
1. Introduction THE POLITICS OF SERVICE DELIVERY IN PAKISTAN* Democracy in Pakistan has not resulted in improvements in the services for poor people. On the contrary, between 1988 and 1999, the country experienced its longest period of democratic rule, and also a decline in its social indicators, particularly with regards to basic education. This failure of democratic politics is not unique to Pakistan. As the World Development Report 2004 notes, the last three decades have witnessed a huge increase in the number of democratic governments in the world, but not concomitant improvements in services for the poor. Instead, it appears that many democracies in the developing world systematically pursue policies that hurt the welfare of the poor. This lack of relationship between democracy and improvements in services is puzzling. Given that the median voter in Pakistan is poor, and given that improvements in education and health services have a positive impact on the lives of the poor, why do elected politicians not act on the demands of the median voter and improve these services? Elected politicians in Pakistan appeared to be far more concerned with patronage, or doling out targeted favors to a small number of privileged groups, rather than on providing public goods that would benefit the majority of citizens. Assuming that Pakistan s politicians were rational agents, who sought to maximize their chances of remaining in office, the question then is what were the constraints under which these politicians were operating that resulted in these perverse incentives? In analyzing this puzzle, this paper builds on the substantial, and growing, literature on institutions and economic development, particularly the subset of this literature that focuses on the political economy of service delivery. 1 This literature has recognized that information is the key reason why elected officials may actually pursue policies that benefit the few at the expense of the many. To get elected, politicians must credibly communicate to voters that they personally were responsible for certain improvements in their lives, a requirement that tends to favor targeted benefits, or patronage, rather than public goods. For example, this tradeoff is evident in the decision on whether or not to undertake patronage-based recruitment of teachers. On the one hand this recruitment will benefit a narrow segment of the population that gets these teaching jobs, and these clients will be well informed about who was responsible for hiring them, but the general quality of public education will suffer. On the other hand, if teachers are qualified and are made to show up regularly to class to teach, then education will clearly improve but it will be difficult for voters to clearly assign this improvement to the efforts of a particular politician. Institutions have an important impact on this tradeoff between patronage and service delivery. The specific institution that this paper focuses on is political parties, and argues that three feature of the party system have important bearing on this tradeoff: the number of political parties or the degree of fragmentation of the party system; the internal cohesion, or degree of factionalism of * The generous and insightful comments of Nick Manning, Zareen Fatima Naqvi, Kapil Kapoor, and John Wall are gratefully acknowledged. 1 The literature on institutions and growth is large, beginning with North s seminal work (North, 1981). Acemoglu et al (2004), and Keefer (2004) provide excellent reviews of the literature. On service delivery, the recent works include World Bank (2003), Keefer and Khemani (2003), and Keefer (2002) 1
political parties; and the degree of ethnic divide or polarization among political parties. 2 The higher the levels of party fragmentation, factionalism, and polarization, the greater the incentives for patronage, and the poorer the quality of service delivery. Party fragmentation increases the informational demands on voters since there are many more candidates and therefore, many more messages that voters have to evaluate during election time. When political parties are highly factionalized they do not provide their members stable career prospects, and politicians have a relatively greater incentive to focus on targeted goods so as to build a personal reputation that they can carry across party lines. Finally, in highly polarized party systems, the provision of public goods provides less political benefits as different ethnic groups have different preferences over, and cannot agree on, the public goods to be provided. This argument is developed by looking at inter-provincial variation in party structure in Pakistan, and its correlation with the quality of service delivery. The quality of service delivery is measured by expenditure patterns within sectors, such as the relative emphasis on operations and maintenance as opposed to salary expenditure; and the quality of sector governance, as measured by the degree of politicization of the bureaucracy, and the adherence to proper procedures for staff recruitment and procurement. In provinces where the degree of factionalism, fragmentation, and polarization was higher, there were greater incentives for patronage, expenditure patterns were less efficient, and there were greater problems in sector governance. The outline of the argument is sketched out in Figure 1. The structure of the paper roughly Figure 1: The outline of the argument follows this outline from the bottom up. Party fragmentation Party factionalism Party polarization The next section attempts to establish some stylized facts regarding interprovincial Incentives for variations patronage in the quality of supply of education and health services Poor expenditure Poor sector in Pakistan. Section patterns governance 3 then begins the political economy analysis, by first examining a couple Poor service delivery of commonly made explanations in Pakistan for these governance problems namely, elite capture and the impact of political instability. Section 4 examines the literature on how informational asymmetries can create incentives for patronage at the expense of public goods. The next section examines how the structure of the party system interacts with these informational asymmetries and exacerbates or abates these incentives. Section 6 concludes by summarizing the discussion, and pointing to some reform options. Two caveats are in order before proceeding. This paper does not examine issues related to the demand for education. In fact, it assumes that the demand for education is high, and focuses 2 This classification borrows from Mainwaring and Scully (1995) 2
instead on political market failures that fail to translate this demand into supply. There is some empirical justification for this assumption in Pakistan, as there has been considerable growth in recent years of private schools, particularly in the rural areas. 3 This growth in private schooling represents parent s dissatisfaction with government schools, and the demand for better quality education. Nevertheless, this assumption of high demand is clearly simplistic, especially with regards to female education in Pakistan. As a number of studies have shown, enrollment of girls, particularly in rural areas, is lower than that for boys, and it is lower for all income groups. Girls are also more likely to drop out of school than boys, and their school attendance is also much more sensitive to school quality than that of boys. Clearly therefore, the demand for girl s education cannot be taken as a given. However, delving into issues of demand will distract from the purpose of this paper, which is to examine how supply failures can exist independently of demand-related issues. Second, this paper limits its analysis to the democratic period between 1988 and 1999, and therefore does not examine the impact of the recent devolution initiative on policy-makers incentives to improve service delivery. Devolution has brought about a far reaching change in the functioning of government in Pakistan, with the main responsibility for the delivery of education, health, water and sanitation, roads and transport, and agriculture services devolved to district, tehsil, and, to some extent, union governments. 4 This functional devolution has been accompanied by complex political, fiscal, and administrative changes, and a detailed analysis of the impact of these changes on the incentives of local policy-makers is beyond the scope of this paper. 2. Pakistan s poor service delivery: poor expenditure patterns and poor sector governance Despite respectable per capita growth, high levels of foreign development assistance, and impressive reductions in poverty, Pakistan has among the worst social indicators in the developing world. The 1990s, Pakistan s decade of democracy, was also a decade of stagnation in intermediate and outcome social indicators (Table 1). The adult literacy rate in 2001/02 at 45 percent was only modestly higher than in 1995/96, and the net primary enrollment rate had Table 1: Pakistan -- key social indicators 1991/92 1995/96 1998/99 2001/02 Literacy rate (10+) 39 45 45 Net primary enrollment rate (%) 46 44 42 42 Male 53 49 47 46 Female 39 38 37 38 Punjab 45 44 45 Sindh 45 41 40 NWFP 35 39 41 Balochistan 45 36 32 Infant mortality rate (per thousand) 101 89 82 Incidence of diarrhea 18 12 12 Immunization coverage, 12-23 months (%) 37 45 49 53 Indoor piped drinking water (% of households) 25 22 22 Source: Pakistan Integrated Household Survey, various years 3 4 See Andrabi et al (2002). See World Bank (2004b) for a detailed discussion 3
declined from 46 percent in 1991/92 to 42 percent in 2001/02, with male enrollments declining from 53 percent to 46 percent, and female from 39 percent to 38 percent. At the provincial level, educational outcomes for Sindh and in particular Balochistan worsened considerably, while NWFP witnessed a modest increase in enrollments. Other social indicators paint a similarly depressing picture. Access to indoor piped drinking water declined from 25% to 22%, and there were only modest improvements in immunization coverage and reductions in the incidence of diarrhea. As is now well known, these poor social indicators are not due to poverty or lower rates of economic growth. As Easterly (2003) shows, Pakistan significantly underperforms when compared to other countries at similar levels of per capita income, and when compared to countries that on average grew at a similar rate. For example, Pakistan has 36 percent fewer births attended by trained personnel, an infant mortality rate that is 27 per thousand higher, and a gross primary enrollment rate that is 20 percent lower than countries with similar income levels. Similarly, growth in Pakistan appears to have less of an impact on social sectors than in other countries -- between 1960 and 1998, as per capita GDP more than doubled in Pakistan, infant mortality declined by 43 percent, as compared to a decline of 73 percent in a group of low income countries that on average grew at the same rate. This stagnation was particularly disappointing given that the 1990s was also the period of the Social Action Program, which was up to that point the most concerted effort at improving service delivery in the country s history. Between 1992 and 2000, the government and the donor community spent a total of $9 billion on the program twothirds of this funding went to education, where as we have seen outcomes were particularly disappointing. One common reason cited for this poor performance was that social sector expenditures were squeezed as a result of the deteriorating macroeconomic situation in the country. Figure 2: Consolidated government expenditures on education and health, as percentage of GDP 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 1987/88 As a result of the accumulating debt burden from running high fiscal deficits in the 1970s and 1980s, the 1990s was a period of declining fiscal space with, at its peak in 1997, almost 60 percent of public expenditures being consumed by debt servicing. Education and health expenditures declined from 2.2 and 0.7 percentage of GDP in 1987/88 to 1.7 and 0.5 percentage of GDP by 1999/00 (Figure 2). However, despite these declines, social sector expenditures were prioritized and protected relative to other sectors for example, agriculture and irrigation spending declined by 30% between 1990/91 and 1999/00, and even defense expenditures declined from 6.3 percent of GDP in 1991/92 to 4.2 percent by 1998/99. 5 1989/90 1991/92 1993/94 Education 1995/96 1997/98 Health Source: Government of Pakistan, Finance Accounts 1999/00 5 World Bank (2004a) 4
Figure 3: Number of primary schools in Pakistan, 1980-2000 Figure 4: Number of primary teachers in Pakistan, 1980-2000 160,000 400,000 140,000 350,000 120,000 300,000 100,000 80,000 250,000 200,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 150,000 100,000 50,000 0 1980-81 1982-83 1984-85 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99 2000-01 1980-81 1982-83 1984-85 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99 Source: Economic survey and National Education Management Information System (NEMIS) Figure 5: Number of primary schools in Sindh, 1980-2000 Source: Economic survey and NEMIS Figure 6: Number of primary teachers in Sindh, 1980-2000 50,000 40,000 Return of democratic politics, 1988 120,000 100,000 Return of democratic politics, 1988 30,000 80,000 20,000 10,000 Increase (1985-2000): 180% 60,000 40,000 20,000 Increase (1985-2000): 125% 0 0 1980-81 1982-83 1984-85 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99 2000-01 1980-81 1982-83 1984-85 1986-87 1988-89 1990-91 1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99 2000-01 Source: Bureau of Statistics and NEMIS Source: Bureau of Statistics and NEMIS It would also be erroneous to attribute declining outcomes primarily to this reduction in aggregate expenditures. As the World Development Report 2004 points out, cross-national evidence suggests that there is no systematic relationship between expenditures and outcomes in education and health. The reason for this lack of relationship is that in many cases this expenditure fails to reach the poor, and is of poor quality because of a) poor expenditure patterns and b) poor sector governance. Both of these factors were key to the under-performance of the Social Action Program. Moreover, while these problems were evident across the country, there was interesting variation around this poor average. In other words, while all provinces performed poorly, some performed worse than others. 2.1. Poor expenditure patterns While overall social sector expenditures were protected relative to other sectors during the 1990s, intra-sectoral allocations were suboptimal. Specifically, the construction of new buildings and the hiring of additional staff were prioritized at the expense of providing resources for operations 5
and maintenance. As Figure 3 and Figure 4 reveal, the advent of democracy first with the limited, non-party based electoral democracy under General Zia-ul -Haq in 1985, and then the fully-fledged party-based democracy from 1988 -- saw a surge in school construction and particularly, teacher recruitment. 6 The number of public sector primary schools nationally increased by 70 percent from 1985 to 1999-2000 (from approximately 77,000 to over 132,000), and the number of primary teachers almost doubled (from 179,000 to roughly 350,000) over the same period. This surge was particularly salient in the province of Sindh (Figure 5 and Figure 6), with primary schools increasing by approximately 180% (from roughly 14,000 in 1985 to 39,000 in 1999-00) and primary teachers increasing by 125% (from roughly 45,000 in 1985 to 101,000 in 1999-00). The fact that net primary enrollment rates declined in Pakistan in the 1990s, with a particularly significant decline in Sindh, is a stark reminder of the lack of correlation between educational inputs and outcomes. Table 2: Trends in provincial employment 1988/89 2000 Growth (1988-2000) Civil servants per 100 population (2000)* Punjab 722,916 888,796 22.9% 1.21 Sindh 285,042 457,494 60.5% 1.50 NWFP 177,106 262,074 48.0% 1.48 Balochistan 98,942 128,132 29.5% 1.95 Source: World Bank (2004a) * Based on 1998 census There were also significant staffing increases in other sectors, particularly health and the police, and the overall size of the provincial bureaucracy increased by 35 percent between 1988 and 2000. As Table 2 shows, the highest increase was in Sindh (60%), followed by NWFP (48%), Table 3: Access to public primary education in Pakistan (2001/02) Boys (rural areas) Girls (rural areas) Student/teacher ratio* Within community Within 0-2 KM Within community Within 0-2 KM Punjab 83 7 76 7 46.6 Sindh 95 5 41 9 22.9 NWFP 92 2 79 8 33.5 Balochistan 76 1 32 3 62.9 Pakistan 85 6 67 7 37.6 * For 2000 Source: NEMIS, 2000, PIHS (2001/02) Balochistan (29.5%), and Punjab (22%). As a result of these increases, Sindh, and in particular Balochistan, were relatively overstaffed as compared to Punjab and NWFP. The number of civil servants per 100 of population was 1.50 in Sindh and 1.95 in Balochistan, as compared to 1.48 in NWFP and 1.21 in Punjab. 6 This fact is also corroborated in field-based studies. For example, one study of schooling in 5 rural districts found that over a third of the village schools in the sample had been constructed after 1985 (Gazdar 2000). 6
Figure 7: Share of non-salary expenditure in education (as percent of total expenditure) Figure 8: Share of non-salary expenditure in health (as percent of total expenditure) 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% Punjab Sindh NWFP Balochistan 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Punjab Sindh NWFP Balochistan 1992/93 1998/99 1992/93 1998/99 Source: MSU (2000) Source: MSU (2000) Figure 9: Percentage of girls primary schools with latrines Figure 10: Percentage of girls primary schools with boundary walls 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Punjab Sindh NWFP Balochistan 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Punjab Sindh NWFP Balochistan 1995/96 2002/03 1995/96 2002/03 Source: NEMIS Source: NEMIS This increase in schools and teaching staff implied that, at least for boys, quality, rather than access, was the most important supply-side determinant of social sector outcomes in Pakistan. As Table 3 shows, by the end of the decade of the 1990s, access to boys primary schools in the rural areas was quite good, with 85 percent of the sampled communities having a boys primary school within their community. Access for boys was particularly good in Sindh and NWFP, with 95 and 92 percent of rural communities having a boys primary school. By contrast, access for girls was an important issue, particularly in Sindh and Balochistan, and in particular given the greater sensitivity of girl s enrollments to proximity of a school. 7 In other words, it appears that there were problems in the site selection of girls schools, a point that will come back to later. The official student-teacher ratio also makes for interesting reading. It reveals for example, that 7 The access to girls primary school data in the PIHS may be understated for Sindh as it is the only province that witnessed a large expansion of co-educational primary schools. It is unclear, whether the PIHS survey data asked households about access to these co-ed schools. 7
the large-scale teacher recruitment in Sindh was not matched by increased enrollments as the province stands out with a particularly good student-teacher ration of 23, compared to the national average of 37.6. These increases in the number of schools, and in particular staffing, were not matched by concerns for quality, and where the increases were the greatest, as in Sindh, the quality improvements were the lowest. With regards to the recurrent budget, the bulk of health and in particular, educational expenditures were consumed by salaries, and remained so despite the strong emphasis in the Social Action Program for increasing operations and maintenance expenditures. Non-salary expenditures (which for example consists of expenditures on textbooks, furniture, blackboards, medicines, injections, equipment, as well as on maintenance and repair) increased only modestly, rising from 1.2% of total expenditures in education in 1992/93 to 4.7% by 1998/99, and from 18.5% of total expenditure in health in 1992/93 to 29.5% by 1998-99. 8 As Figure 7 and Figure 8 reveal, the inter-provincial variation around this national average was considerable. In education, the least increases were in Punjab (from 1% to 3.6%) and in Sindh (from 0.9% to 3.5%) and the largest were in NWFP (from 1.2% to 9.7%). 9 The inter-provincial contrast in health expenditures was more marked, with the share non-salary health recurrent expenditures actually declining in Sindh (from 16.5% to 14.5%) and Balochistan (from 32.3% to 21.5%) between 1992/93 and 1998/99, while increasing significantly in Punjab and NWFP. Similarly, with regards to the development budget the emphasis was on constructing new buildings at the expense of improving the quality of the existing facilities. Again, the contrast between Sindh on the one hand, and Punjab and NWFP on the other was striking. For example, as Figure 9 and Figure 10 show, between 1995/96 and 1999/00 the percentage of girls schools with latrines and boundary walls both of which are important features of school quality, and have a large impact on encouraging parents to send their daughters to school were roughly stagnant in Sindh (from 59% to 60%, and 68% to 67% respectively). By contrast, they increased in Punjab and NWFP. 2.2. Quality of sector governance The considerable mismanagement associated with these increased inputs compounded the problem of poor intra-sectoral allocations. Teachers were recruited primarily on patronage grounds, and the schools built were of poor quality because of the commissions given to the contractors. The best evidence for this abuse was a series of Third Party Validation exercises conducted by the Auditor General of Pakistan as part of the Social Action Program. These surveys, conducted between 1998 and 2001, examined the extent of departmental compliance with existing procedures and criteria in the areas of procurement, site selection, and recruitment, as well as the adequacy of systems for the monitoring of staff absenteeism. Cumulative results for the four rounds of the exercise revealed that nationally on average only 72% of the sampled cases of recruitment, 43% of procurement, and 68% of site selection, followed the existing procedures. As Figure 11 shows, the inter-provincial variation around this national average is considerable, with Sindh and Balochistan performing much more poorly relative to Punjab and NWFP. For example, in Sindh only 58% of the sampled cases of recruitment, 38% of procurement, and 41% of site selection followed the required criteria. By 8 9 MSU (2000), based on revised estimates of SAP expenditures only It should be noted that the figure for NWFP is likely to be overstated due to misclassification of some establishment type expenditure as non-salary salary expenditure (MSU, 2000) 8
contrast, in NWFP these figures were 91%, 50%, and 66% respectively. Similarly, the survey found that mechanisms for monitoring also in large part did not follow the criteria established under the Social Action Program, with again Sindh being the worst performer. The large problems in the procedures used for site selection in Sindh for example, are perhaps one reason why access to girls primary schools remained poor in the province despite the significant increase in the number of schools. The marginalization of the public services commissions was a significant factor in the governance problems relating to recruitment, and nowhere was this problem more serious than in Sindh. In general, democratically elected governments in Pakistan have sought to undermine the scope and independence of the services commissions, and to introduce greater departmental discretion in the recruitment of the upper echelons of the civil service. For example, the 1973 constitution, introduced by the government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, removed the constitutional guarantees that had earlier been given to the services commission. Chairmen and members now held their posts for varying terms of mostly two to three years, and were dependent on the government for the extension of their service. Moreover, existing civil servants could be appointed as chairmen (and members), thereby compromising their independence. This lack of autonomy was particularly severe in Sindh, as the government used its discretion to remove chairmen and members on three occasions -- the entire commission (chairman and all ten members) was disbanded in 1994, the chairman was removed in 1997, and the chairman and two members were removed in 1998. Figure 11: Cumulative results of TPV for the Social Action Program (1998-2001): percentage of cases following proper procedures 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% There is an obvious link between these abuses in 10% 0% recruitment and staff Recruitmant Procurement Site Selection Monitoring absenteeism. 10 At one level, Absenteeism if recruitment was based on political criteria, and not on Punjab NWFP Balochistan Sindh merit, then the appointed Source: Auditor General of Pakistan: Social Action Program: Third teachers would not be the Party Validation, 1998,1999, 2000, and 2001 ones most qualified for the job, and would also likely be protected from disciplinary action by their political bosses. In addition, and more interestingly, 10 There are very few estimates of teacher absenteeism in Pakistan. One survey, conducted by the World Bank, revealed that out of the 206 schools surveyed, classes were not being held in 34, or in 16 percent, at the time of the survey visit (World Bank 2002). Even in schools in which classes were being held, the rate of teacher absenteeism was high, at around 20 percent. The problems in Sindh were worse than in Punjab and NWFP, with almost 30% of the schools not holding classes. 9
anecdotal evidence reveals that recruitment was also a revenue-generating activity for politicians and bureaucrats, with primary school teacher posts being sold for Rs. 35,000 to Rs. 50,000. 11 Given that these are relatively large sums of money for the people who were recruited, and were often paid by taking out loans, it created incentives for absenteeism to the extent that the inducted teachers needed to take on a side job to finance these investments. Endemic staff transfers were another problem negatively impacting the quality of service delivery. While the provincial government s Rules of Business explicitly required that staff remain in a particular post for 3 years, in practice, as Table 4 indicates, average tenure was much lower. The problem was more severe in Sindh, as compared to Punjab and NWFP. For example, in Sindh, during the democratic period, the average tenure of secretaries in 8 key departments was approximately 11 months, as compared to 14 months in Punjab and NWFP. Interestingly, across the three provinces tenure was worse in departments such as education, works and services (this was the key implementing department for development works), and excise and taxation that had the greatest potential for patronage, either through employment, revenue generation, or through the implementation of development schemes. This rapid turnover of staff was an indicator of the politicization of the bureaucracy, and clearly disruptive to effective management of the sectors. Staff transfers at junior levels were also endemic, particularly of teachers, although it is difficult to get data to indicate the magnitude of the problem. Table 4: Average tenure (in months) of secretaries in key departments (Jan 1, 1989 Dec 31, 1999) Department Sindh Punjab NWFP Education 9.4 13.2 9.4 Health 12.0 14.7 13.2 Works and Services 9.4 9.4 11.0 Excise and Taxation 7.8 Services (Establishment) 12.0 14.7 22.0 Agriculture 11.0 14.7 12.0 Finance 12.0 16.5 14.7 Planning & Development 18.9 18.9 26.4 Total (8 departments)* 10.9 14.0** 14.4** * These 8 departments are Education, Health, Works and Services, Excise and Taxation, Finance, Planning and Development, Agriculture, and Services. ** Excludes Excise and Taxation Source: Services departments of the provincial governments To summarize, the above analysis suggests that Pakistan s elected policy-makers were motivated to hire teachers and doctors, but less motivated to worry about the quality of teaching or medical staff that were recruited. They were also motivated to build schools and basic health units, but less motivated to worry about maintaining this infrastructure, and for ensuring that it was of good quality. The key question is what were the underlying political and institutional causes of this poor intra-sectoral composition of expenditures and the governance problems highlighted above. Moreover, why were these incentives so much worse in Sindh as compared to Punjab and NWFP? Was this a failure of the accountability of policy-makers to the public, or was it a more complicated failure of the political market. These issues are taken up in the rest of the paper. 11 Based on informal discussions with various education department staff in the provincial and district governments 10
3. Some common political economy explanations elite capture and political instability This paper, following the new political economy literature, began with the puzzle as to why democratic governments can pursue policies that hurt the very majorities that voted them into power. This puzzle assumed that the numeric weight of the lower classes makes them a vital resource in democratic politics. A large body of literature on underdeveloped countries rejects this assumption altogether because it ignores the effects of power and societal dominance. Instead, this literature argues that inequalities rooted in society translate into unequal political influence for example, because of the rural Poor s dependence on elites for their economic wellbeing it would be naïve to expect the disadvantaged to exercise an independent voice in the democratic process. Elite capture is a standard political economy explanation for the lack of a pro-poor public policy generally, and for problems in service delivery specifically. For example, Bourgignon and Verdier (2000) argue that in oligarchic societies, elites will oppose mass education because the more educated the population the greater the pressures for democratization, and the greater the threat to the power of these privileged groups. In Pakistan, a popular version of this elite capture hypothesis takes the form of the feudal politics argument. To summarize, this argument rejects the notion of electoral accountability and citizen voice, and argues that policies instead reflect the preference of rural elites, and that these preferences are explicitly against improvements in education. 12 These rural elites are able to win elections, either through outright coercion, or through their monopoly economic and political position in their constituency, and not because of their responsiveness to voter demands. And their monopoly position is dependent on keeping their constituents backward. To quote one prominent economist the ruling elites found it convenient to perpetuate low literacy rates. The lower the proportion of literate people, the lower the probability that the ruling elite could be displaced. 13 And given that these feudal elites were particularly powerful in Sindh and Balochistan is one possible explanation for the particularly severe service delivery problems in these provinces. While popular, there are a number of problems with the elite capture, or feudal politics, argument. For one, in a number of constituencies in Pakistan, in particular rural Table 5: Percentage of seats won by independent candidates in provincial assembly elections 1988 1990 1993 1997 Punjab 12.1% 6.7% 8.3% 7.9% Sindh 6.0% 19.0% 6.0% 13.0% NWFP 20.0% 21.3% 15.0% 13.8% Balochistan 17.5% 12.5% 22.5% 20.0% Source: Election Commission of Pakistan constituencies, powerful feudals have been defeated at the polls, often by opponents with by comparison very un-privileged backgrounds. Feudal politics implies that votes are cast for individuals rather than for political parties, which in turn implies that there should be a relatively large proportion of candidates who win as independents in elections. However, as Table 5 below indicates that, except for the case of Balochistan, independent candidates won a small proportion of seats in provincial assembly elections between 1988 and 1999. 14 Even in Sindh, which is considered to be the bastion of feudal politics, independent candidates won only 6% of seats in the provincial assembly elections of 1988 and 1993. Sindh in fact had roughly the 12 13 14 See Haq (1998) and Husain (1999) as some of the prominent examples of this argument. Husain (1999), p359 The proportion is even smaller for National Assembly elections 11
same proportion of victorious independent candidates as Punjab, and much less than NWFP and Balochistan. These data do not to deny the importance of the personal characteristics of candidates in determining electoral outcomes. However, the fact that belonging to a political party is so important does suggest that voting behavior is more complex than that suggested by the popular model of societal dominance of rural landed elites. Electoral studies reveal that, unlike what is postulated in the feudal politics model, politicians care about, and spend a great deal of their time, in dealing with the problems of their constituency. For example, as one study noted virtually every politician interviewed throughout the course of this research emphasized the growing expectation and demand of voters that candidates serve as conduits for patronage (Wilder, 1999 pg. 106). The importance of patronage is also underlined by the practice, initiated by the Junejo government in 1985 and subsequently duplicated by the Sharif and Bhutto governments, of allotting funds to individual MNAs and MPAs to spend on development schemes in their constituencies. 15 In fact, as we saw earlier, elected politicians cared a great deal about school construction and teacher recruitment, as was particularly apparent in the case of Sindh, which as mentioned earlier is widely considered to be the domain of feudal politics. Field studies also reveal that the problems of schooling in rural areas have little to do with direct feudal resistance. For example, one study found that there are relatively few instances of total patron power in sample communities [and that] it is no longer possible to trivially ascribe school failure to patron-induced distortion. 16 Of the 125 schools sampled in the study, in only one case had a large landlord actually prevented the establishment of a school. Instead, the study found that local politics was one of partial patron power with political competition between patrons in an electoral system that was highly responsive to public demands. Instead, a major reason for school nonfunctionality was that teachers were appointed on the basis of political connections, and therefore had little incentive to focus on teaching. Political instability is another commonly made explanation for the failure of the democratic governments in Pakistan. Easterly (2003) for example makes the point that the rapid turnover of regimes in the 1990s meant that Pakistan politicians behavior was akin to what Mancur Olson termed as roving bandits. That is, since Figure 12: Voter turnout in national and provincial assembly elections (1988-97) 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Punjab Sindh NWFP Balochistan National 1988 1990 1993 1997 Source: Election Commission of Pakistan 15 16 These programs were called the Peoples Program and the Tameer-e-Watan program by the Benazir Bhutto and the Nawaz Sharif government respectively. Gazdar 2000 (pp 59-64) 12
politicians had a short time horizon they had an incentive to loot today rather than to invest for tomorrow. Between 1988 and 1999, Pakistan had four elected governments, and in such short terms of office politicians had less of an incentive to implement policies that require a longer time to show results. Improvements in service delivery, such as ensuring better quality teaching, unlike the provision of government jobs or construction of school buildings, do not bear immediate fruit. Econometric studies have also shown that a higher propensity of change in executive power, either by constitutional or unconstitutional means leads to lower investments in public goods and slower economic growth. 17 Political instability is however, endogenous to policy. In Pakistan a major reasons why terms of office were short was precisely because elected politicians engaged in widespread rent-seeking and corruption, thereby greatly discrediting themselves and creating the necessary conditions for their dismissal. 18 In 1988, when democracy returned to Pakistan after a hiatus of 11 years, there was no reason a priori to expect that the government would be short-lived. In fact, the end of a long and repressive period of military rule had created considerable hope and excitement in Pakistan, but the new government quickly dissipated this political capital, resulting in, for example, declining voter turnout in provincial and national assembly elections (Figure 12), and considerable disillusionment with democratic government. These actions therefore beg the question why were incentives such as to encourage rent-seeking at the expense of public goods. One needs to explain the more fundamental causes of this political instability, rather than view instability as a given. 4. The incentives for patronage in a democracy Information is the key reason as to why democracies can produce outcomes that hurt the median voter. Politicians care about getting elected, and they will focus on policies and will emphasize expenditure in areas that will maximize their electoral fortunes. Importantly, getting elected is also crucially contingent on information specifically, it requires that voters are able to connect improvements or deteriorations in their welfare to the actions of a particular politician. In other words, politicians must be able to credibly take credit for these improvements. As a recent and growing body of literature points out, this importance of information implies that politicians are likely to be more responsive to the more informed group of citizens, and as a result focus more on private goods, or targeted benefits, as opposed to public goods that benefit the majority. 19 The Public Choice literature was one of the earliest attempts to explain why democratic governments enact policies that are economically inefficient and hurt society on the whole. 20 A starting assumption of this literature is that most voters are rationally ignorant. The logic for this ignorance is that given that acquiring information about policy-making is costly, and given that that an individual s vote is one amongst millions, the probability that one's efforts in 17 18 19 20 Alesina et al (1996) Pakistan s institutional structure consists of an elected parliament and prime minister, as well as an appointed president (by members of both houses of the parliament). The president has considerable powers, including the power to dismiss parliament. Three of the elected governments in Pakistan were dismissed by the president (in 1990,1993, and 1996); while one was removed in a military coup (in 1999). Important recent works in this literature include Persson and Tabellini (2000); Keefer (2002); Keefer and Khemani (2003) This literature is huge. Some of the significant works are those of the Chicago School of Regulation (Stigler 1975, Becker 1958, 1983) and theories of rent-seeking (Olson 1982, Bates 1981). 13
acquiring information will lead to better policies is small. Only those groups that can extract a private benefit from the government have an incentive to be informed about government policies. Since most voters are uninformed they can be manipulated and electoral success is contingent on candidates advertising, which creates a natural alliance between politicians and the informed subset of citizens. Money becomes a crucial determinant of electoral success, and candidates trade specific favors to interest groups and elites in exchange for money with which they can run their campaigns. Thus these groups will not lobby for the provision of public goods because the benefits of public goods accrue to everyone; they have every incentive to lobby for private goods, and to meticulously monitor policy-makers to ensure that they are delivering on what they promised. While the Public Choice literature s focus was to explain sub-optimal policies, like trade quotas and farm subsidies, in industrialized countries, the argument is of considerable relevance to less-developed countries as well. Voters in developing countries, due to the higher levels of illiteracy, are likely to be even less informed about policies. Also, evidence suggests that the costs of elections is, as a proportion to GDP, higher in developing countries than in developed countries, thereby creating an even greater need to trade favors for campaign financing. 21 Table 6: Household satisfaction with public services (Pakistan) Households satisfied with (%): Public transport 59 Sewage services 12 Electricity supply 63 Public health services 23 Public education services 55 Police services 31 Source: CIET (2002) The patronage-politics model is the Public Choice equivalent for describing politics in lessdeveloped countries. According to this model, politics in developing countries is not about policy but about delivering goods and services to the people. Political parties are largely devoid of any ideological underpinnings, and instead are large patronage structures. The logic however, is similar to that articulated above. Patrons, who are generally locally influential people, provide politicians with the resources to conduct their electoral campaigns; in return they expect private favors, such as government jobs and contracts; and the mass of citizens are uninformed and are easily influenced by what the politicians say and who the patrons tell them to vote for. The public choice and patron-client models argue that due to informational asymmetries across voters, politicians have an incentive to target the more informed and hence more influential voters. A related argument is that there are informational asymmetries across the demands made by individual voters, and politicians have incentives to focus on satisfying those demands that voters are more informed about. That is even if there is no elite capture, and lobbying is done by all voters and not just a subset of voters, as in the previous argument, politicians will still focus on satisfying some types of demands rather than others. The logic of this argument is as follows: Voters, even poor voters, present a menu of demands to their elected representatives and these representatives have to decide on which of these demands to satisfy in order to maximize their political support. For example, as results from a recent survey in Pakistan reveal (Table 6), households are dissatisfied with a number of public services and expect their elected representatives to work to improve these. In addition to the provision of public goods, voters are also present individual-specific demands, such as requests for public sector employment, complaints about harassment by the police, admission for their children in schools and colleges etc. Politicians, given limited time and resources, have to make a choice 21 See World Bank (2002), Barkan and Thomas (2003). 14
about which of these demands to satisfy, and this choice will be determined by what maximizes chances for re-election, which in turn is dependent on what politicians can credibly take credit for. Some public goods, such as the provision of roads, are much easier to verify and credit to the efforts of a particular politician, than others, such as better quality healthcare or education. As the World Development Report 2004 points out, education and health place very high informational demands on voters as these are transaction-intensive services with outcomes that are crucially dependent on the behavior of providers that are very difficult to monitor. Therefore, one would expect politicians to focus more on roads, and evidence from Pakistan seems to suggest that this is indeed the case. As mentioned earlier, in Pakistan, members of parliament are each given funds to spend on development works in their constituency, and as Figure 13 reveals the largest proportion of these funds are spent on roads. 22 While some public goods like roads will get more attention than others, individual-specific favors will in general receive even greater priority. The reason is that demands for public goods and for individual-specific favors differ in the relative ease with which preferences are transmitted to policy-makers. Individual contacting for particularized benefits places the least organizational demands on citizens, and presents the clearest relationship between action and result. Demands for public goods entail freerider problems and are therefore much more difficult to organize. Figure 13: Sectoral expenditures from funds allocated to members of national assembly (1988-1993) 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Education Health Water Supply & Sanitation Roads Source: Ministry of Local Government, Government of Pakistan There is some survey-based evidence that citizen contacting of politicians in Pakistan is motivated primarily by a) individual-specific problems; and b) to the extent that issues about service delivery are raised, they relate more to roads and water supply rather than education and health. Table 7 shows results from a survey that asked citizens for the reasons they contacted locally elected officials (specifically, union council members). The majority of reasons cited by male and female respondents alike related to personal issues, such as financial support, the issuance of identity cards, a police problem, or some form of dispute. Those who contacted for reasons of service delivery did so regarding mainly about water, roads, and electricity. Less than 2 percent of the respondents approached local officials for education and health matters. While this survey only examined the reasons for contacting local politicians, it is likely that the motivation for contacting provincial or national politicians would be similar. 23 22 This analysis is of the Peoples Program introduced by the first PPP government of Benazir Bhutto (1988-90) and the Tameer-e-watan program introduced by the first Nawaz Sharif government (1991-93). Both these programs provided each member of the national assembly with development funds to spend in his or her constituency. 23 At the provincial level, one study found that the Political Secretary for the Chief Minister of Punjab dealt with an average of 150 200 requests per day, the vast majority of which were requests for jobs, 15