THE CANADIAN LEGAL SYSTEM Fifth Edition by Gerald L. Gall O.C, B.A., LL.B. Member ofthe Ontario Bar Professor oflaw The University of Alberto. With Chapter 8 The Legal System in Quebec by F. Pearl Eliadis, B.C.L., LL.B., B.C.L. (Oxon.) and revised by France Allard, B.C.L., LL.B. General Counsel Comparative Law, Legislative Services Branch, Department of Justice, Canada THOMSON - * CARSWELL
TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication Foreword Forewordto the Fourth Edition Foreword to the Third Edition Foreword to the Second Edition Preface Preface to the Fourth Edition Table ofcases iii v vii ix xi xiii xv xxvii Introduction 1 Chapterl TheNatureoflaw 3 Positivism 10 NaturalLaw 11 Realism 13 The Hohfeldian Scheme 13 Critical Legal Theory 16 Conclusion 18 Selected Bibliography oftreatises on an Introduction to Law 19 Chapterl The Divisions of Law 23 The Main Divisions of Law 23 Other Distinctions 30 1. TheCommonLaw 30 2. The Differences between the Common Law and Civil Law Systems 30 3. Terminology 32 4. Conclusion 32 Chapter3 The Sources of Law 35 Introduction 35 The Legal Sources of Law 40 1. Statutes 40 2. CaseLaw 41
XX The Canadian Legal System 3. Parliamentary Sovereignty and the Relation of Cases to Statutes 43 4. Miscellaneous Legal Sources of Law 44 5. Constitutional Sources of Law 47 The Legislative Process 48 The Growth of Primary and Subordinate Legislation 49 Chapter4 The British Legal Tradition 55 Introduction 55 The Reception of English Law in Canada 56 1. The Origin of the Common Law 56 2. Confederation 57 3. Western Provinces 57 4. Maritime Provinces 58 5. Central Canada 59 6. Other Significant Dates 59 The Law of Equity 59 The Canadian Constitutional System 61 Other Components of the British Legal Tradition in Canada 63 Conclusion 64 Chapter 5 The Constitutional Basis of Legislative and Judicial Authority 67 Introduction 67 The Constitutional Basis 68 1. The Provisions of the Charter 83 2. The Significance of Entrenchment 111 3. The Process of Charter Adjudication/Interpretation 115 (a) Role of the Judiciary 120 (b) Interpretation 120 (c) Generally 120 (d) Terminology 122 Constitutional Basis of Legislative Authority 127 Constitutional Basis of Judicial Authority 139 Constitutional Procedure 141 Selected Bibliography ofarticles and Treatises on the Constitutional Basis of Judicial and Legislative Authority in Canada 153
Table of Contents xxi Chapter 6 The Institutions: The Roleof Courts in Canada.. 179 Introduction 179 The Atmosphere of the Courts 179 1. TheOpenCourt 180 2. Dignity and Decorum 203 3. Television in the Courtroom 204 The Functionof Courts in Canada 209 Arbitration and Adjudication in the Context of an Adversarial System 210 Effectiveness of Our System of Courts The Importance of Scrutiny and Responsiveness 211 Canadian Courts as Institutions in Society 214 Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanisms (A.D.R.) 215 Conclusions 217 Selected Bibliography on Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanisms 217 Chapter 7 Hierarchy of Federal and Provincial Courts and Division of Responsibility 227 Major Court Reform in the Province of Ontario 238 The Military Justice System 242 Aboriginal Justice 247 Appendix A The Supreme Court of Canada 258 Appendix B The Court System of the United States 261 Chapter 8 The Legal System in Quebec 263 Introduction 263 Historical Background 266 1. The Royal Measures Act of 1663-1664 267 2. The Quebec Act of 1774 268 3. The Codification of 1866 269 4. Confederation 271 5. The Sixties and the "Social Project" of Revision 272 The Sources of Law 273 1. Law, General Principles and Custom 273 2. CaseLaw 275 3. Doctrine 276 Organization of the Judiciary 276 1. The Superior Court of Quebec 277 2. The Court of Quebec 277 3. The Court of Appeal 278
xxii The Canadian Legal System Legal Education in Quebec 278 Principle Features of the Civil Code of Quebec 278 BookOne: Persons 279 Book Two: The Family 279 Book Three: Successions 280 Book Four: Property 280 BookFive: Obligations 281 Book Six: Prior Claims and Hypothecs 283 Book Seven: Evidence 283 BookEight: Prescription 283 BookNine:PublicationofRights 283 Book Ten: Private International Law 284 Chapter 9 The Role of Lawyers 285 Introduction 285 Legal Training 287 1. Temporary Mobility 289 2. Permanent Mobility (Transfer) Among Canadian Common Law Jurisdictions 289 Careers Open to Lawyers 292 The Lawyer-Client Relationship 295 Role as an Officer of the Court 296 Standards ofconduct 297 The Modern Lawyer 318 Conclusion 320 Selected Bibliography 321 Chapter 10 The Role of the Judge 333 Introduction 333 The Appointment of Judges 340 1. Constitutional Basis 340 2. The Process of Appointment 341 3. Changes in the Appointment Process 345 4. Criteria for Appointment 349 Removal of Judges 352 1. Retirement 352 2. Standards of "Good Behaviour" 352 3. Conclusions 378 Independence of the Judiciary 379 Some Miscellaneous Aspects of the Independence of the Judiciary 404 1. Special Standards in Public and Private Life 404 2. Special Legal Constraints Imposedon Judges... 406 (a) RighttoVote 406
Table of Contents xxiii (b) Law Society Membership 406 (c) Private Practice and Private Concerns 407 3. The Judge Serving in Other Capacities 408 4. TheWritingofJudgments 409 5. Personal Liability of Judges 409 Summary 415 Selected Bibliography 416 Role of the Judge 416 Legal Education 426 Chapter 11 The Doctrines of Precedent and Stare Decisis 429 Introduction 429 The Operation of Stare Decisis 431 A Commentary on the Operation of Stare Decisis... 438 Departure from Theory: The Process of Distinguishing 452 Judicial Perception of the Doctrines of Precedent and Stare Decisis 454 Selected Bibliography on the Doctrines of Precedent and Stare Decisis 458 Chapter 12 The Rules and Principles of Statutory Interpretation 475 The Problem ofcomplexity 475 The Problem of Ambiguity: Determining Legislative Intent 479 1. Rules of Construction 480 2. Aids to Statutory Interpretation 483 (a) Interpretation Statutes 483 (b) Definition Sections 484 (c) Context 484 (d) Other Statutes 484 (e) Legislative History 485 (f) Treatises and Dictionaries 487 (g) Text of the Statute in the Other Official Language 487 (h) Miscellaneous Aids in Interpretation 488 3. Presumptions in Statutory Interpretation 489 (a) Presumption in Criminal or Penal Statutes.. 489 (b) Presumption in Taxation Statutes 489 (c) Presumption Against Alteration of the Law 490 (d) Presumption Against Strict Criminal Liability 490
xxiv The Canadian Legal System (e) Presumption Against Retroactivity 490 (f) Presumption Against Ousting the Jurisdiction of the Courts 491 (g) Presumption of Crown Immunity 491 (h) Miscellaneous Presumptions 492 (i) Drafting Errors 493 Appendix 494 Selected Bibliography on the Rules and Principles of Statutory Interpretation 500 Chapter 13 Fairness and Natural Justice in the Administrative Process 539 Introduction 539 The Importance of Administrative Law 540 The Process of Delegation 540 Classification of Administrative Tribunals 542 1. Historically 542 2. The Current View 544 Grounds for Judicial Review of Administrative Decision-making 545 1. Conformity to Enabling Statute 545 2. Jurisdictional Fact Doctrine 546 3. Abuse of Power or Abuse of Discretion 547 4. Rules of Natural Justice 549 5. Doctrine of Fairness 550 Errorof Law on theface of the Record 555 Procedure for Challenging Decisions of Administrative Tribunals 556 1. When They are Ultra Vires Enabling Legislation 556 2. When They Constitute an Abuse of Powers 556 3. When a Judicial or Quasi-Judicial Tribunal has Breached a Rule of Natural Justice 557 4. When a Judicial or Quasi-Judicial Tribunal or an Administrative Tribunal has Breached the Doctrine of Fairness 558 Privative Clauses 559 Curial Deference Versus Substitute Decision- Making 560 1. Generally 560 2. Particular Standards of Review 562 Judicial Review and Statutory Appeal 567 Statutory Enactments in Administrative Law 568 1. Federal Courts Act 568
Table of Contents xxv 2. Provincial Enactments 571 Growth of Government Bureaucracy 572 Conclusion 574 Selected Bibliography of Treatises, Articles and Other Materials on Administrative Law 575 Chapter 14 New Directions 617 Introduction 617 Technology and the Law 618 The Legal Profession: Public Image and Public Accountability 630 A Lifetime of Education 643 Alternative Careers for Lawyers 651 Legal Agents 652 Law Reform 654 Conclusion 660 Index 665