Canadian Constitutional Law

Canadian Constitutional Law Fourth Edition THE CONSTITUTIONAL LAW GROUP Executive Editors Patrick Macklem Carol Rogerson Joel Bakan University of British Columbia John Borrows University of Victoria Sujit Choudhry Robin Elliot University of British Columbia Jean-Francois Gaudreault-DesBiens Donna Greschner University of Saskatchewan Patricia Hughes University of Calgary Editors Lorraine Weinrib Jean Leclair Universite de Montreal Ian Lee Richard Moon University of Windsor R.C.B. Risk Kent Roach Bruce Ryder Osgoode Hall Law School David Schneiderman 2010 EMOND MONTGOMERY PUBLICATIONS LIMITED TORONTO, CANADA

Detailed Table of Contents Preface to the Fourth Edition Acknowledgments Short Table of Contents Table of Cases iii v xi xxxi PART ONE INTRODUCTION Chapter One Introduction 3 The Elements of the Canadian Constitution 4 The Sources of the Canadian Constitution 5 From Colony to Independent Nation State 6 Perspectives on the Constitution 8 Constitutional Change 9 The Lawyers Role 10 Reference re Secession of Quebec 11 Notes 25 A Brief Tour of What Is to Follow 27 Chapter Two Judicial Review and Constitutional Interpretation 29 I. Judicial Review and the Legitimacy Issue 29 British Columbia v. Imperial Tobacco Canada Ltd 31 Notes and Questions 36 British Columbia (Attorney General) v. Christie 36 Notes and Questions 39 II. Constitutional Interpretation 40 R. Elliot, "References, Structural Argumentation, and the Organizing Principles of Canada's Constitution" 40 Notes and Questions 43 A. Prentice et al., Canadian Women: A History 43 Reference re Meaning of the Word "Persons" in Section 24 of the British North America Act, 1867 45 Edwards v. AG Canada 49 Notes 54 xv

xvi Detailed Table of Contents III. Triggering Judicial Review and Procedural Issues 54 A. How Do Constitutional Issues Get to Court? 54 1. Ordinary Litigation and the Rules of Standing 54 2. The Reference Procedure 56 B. Notice Requirements 58 C. Parties and Intervenors 59 PART TWO FEDERALISM Chapter Three From Contact to Confederation 63 I. Pre-Contact, Contact, and the Myth of Terra Nullius 64 P. Macklem, Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada 65 II. New France: Canada's First European Constitutional Regime 66 III. From Acadia to Nova Scotia: The Genesis of the Maritimes 69 IV. The Expansion and Consolidation of British North America: From the Conquest of New France to the Constitutional Act, 1791 72 V. Troubles in the Colonies: The Quest for Self-Government, the Rebellions, and the Union Act of 1840 75 VI. Confederation 77 G. Stevenson, Unfulfilled Union 77 A. Silver, The French-Canadian Idea of Confederation, 1864-1900 83 J. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of Canadian Federalism 86 Notes 91 A Note on Quebec's Civil Code 92 Chapter Four The Late Nineteenth Century: The Canadian Courts Under the Influence 95 Citizens Insurance Company v. Parsons 97 Russell v. The Queen 104 Hodge v. The Queen 107 Note on the McCarthy Act Reference Ill AG Ontario v. AG Canada (The Local Prohibition Reference).. 114 Note: The Nature of Federalism 119 Note: The Compact Theory 121 Note: The Power of Disallowance 122 The Manitoba Schools Question 123 Chapter Five The Early Twentieth Century: The Beginnings of Economic Regulation 129 Lord R.B. Haldane, "Lord Watson" 129 Reference re The Board of Commerce Act, 1919 & The Combines and Fair Prices Act, 1919 133

Detailed Table of Contents xvii Fort Frances Pulp and Paper Company v. Manitoba Free Press Company 138 Notes 141 Toronto Electric Commissioners v. Snider 142 Note: Lord Haldane and the Trade and Commerce Power 145 The King v. Eastern Terminal Elevator Co. 146 H.A. Smith, "The Residue of Power in Canada" 151 J.R. Mallory, Social Credit and the Federal Power in Canada... 152 A. Cairns, "The Judicial Committee and Its Critics" 154 Chapter Six The 1930s: The Depression and the New Deal 159 Proprietary Articles Trade Association v. AG Canada 159 Reference re the Regulation and Control of Aeronautics in Canada 161 Reference re Regulation and Control of Radio Communication in Canada 163 R. Simeon and I. Robinson, State, Society, and the Development of Canadian Federalism 167 W.P.M. Kennedy, "Our Constitution in the Melting Pot" 169 V. Macdonald, "Judicial Interpretation of the Canadian Constitution" 170 AG Canada v. AG Ontario (Labour Conventions) 171 AG Canada v. AG Ontario (The Employment and Social Insurance Act) 176 AG British Columbia v. AG Canada (The Natural Products Marketing Act) 177 F.R. Scott, "Some Privy Counsel" 187 Chapter Seven Federalism and the Modern Canadian State 189 K. Norrie, R. Simeon, and M. Krasnick, Federalism and the Economic Union 190 Note 197 Chapter Eight Interpreting the Division of Powers 199 I. Values Informing the Interpretation of the Division of Powers 200 R. Simeon, "Criteria for Choice in Federal Systems" 200 Notes and Questions 206 II. Validity: Characterization of Laws 207 A. Pith and Substance 207 K. Swinton, The Supreme Court and Canadian Federalism: The Laskin-Dickson Years 207 W.R. Lederman, "Classification of Laws and the British North America Act" 210 R v. Morgentaler 215 Notes and Questions 224

xviii Detailed Table of Contents Reference re Employment Insurance Act (Can.), ss. 22 and 23.. 226 Notes and Questions 234 B. Double Aspect Doctrine 235 W.R. Lederman, "Classification of Laws and the British North America Act" 235 Multiple Access Ltd. v. McCutcheon 237 Notes 240 C. Necessarily Incidental 241 General Motors of Canada Ltd. v. City National Leasing 242 Notes 246 B. Ryder, "The Demise and Rise of the Classical Paradigm in Canadian Federalism: Promoting Autonomy for the Provinces and First Nations" 247 III. Applicability: The Interjurisdictional Immunity Doctrine 249 McKay v. The Queen 251 Notes and Questions 254 Bell Canada v. Quebec (Commission de la sante et de la securite du travail) (Bell #2) 257 Notes and Questions 262 Canadian Western Bank v. The Queen in Right of Alberta 264 Notes and Questions 271 IV. Operability: The Paramountcy Doctrine 272 Ross v. Registrar of Motor Vehicles 273 Multiple Access Ltd. v. McCutcheon 277 Notes and Questions 281 Bank of Montreal v. Hall 282 Notes and Questions 286 Rothmans, Benson & Hedges Inc. v. Saskatchewan 289 Notes and Questions 293 Chapter Nine Peace, Order, and Good Government 295 Note on the Historical Development of the P.O.G.G. Power... 295 K. Swinton, The Supreme Court and Canadian Federalism: The Laskin-Dickson Years 298 Reference re Anti-Inflation Act 303 Note: The Anti-Inflation Case and Extrinsic Evidence 319 Note: Emergency Legislation After the Anti-Inflation Reference 321 Note: The National Concern Doctrine After Anti-Inflation 322 R v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd. 323 Notes and Questions 335 Note: Jurisdiction Over the Environment 342 Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transport) 342 Note: Other Developments 344

Detailed Table of Contents xix Chapter Ten Economic Regulation 349 I. The Constitution and the Economy 349 Black and Co. v. Law Society of Alberta 350 Note: The Extent of Internal Trade Barriers 352 Canadian Egg Marketing Agency v. Richardson 353 II. Provincial Powers Over Economic Regulation 356 A. General Principles 356 Carnation Co. Ltd. v. Quebec Agricultural Marketing Board... 356 Note on AG Manitoba v. Manitoba Egg and Poultry Association 360 Notes and Questions 364 Note on Re Agricultural Products Marketing Act 365 Notes and Questions 368 B. Natural Resources 368 R. Simeon and I. Robinson, State, Society and the Development of Canadian Federalism 369 Canadian Industrial Gas and Oil Ltd. v. Government of Saskatchewan 370 Notes 375 Central Canada Potash Co. Ltd. v. Government of Saskatchewan 375 Note on Proprietary Rights 378 Note on Section 92A 379 Note on Offshore Minerals 381 III. Federal Powers Over Economic Regulation 381 A. Regulation of Interprovincial and International Trade 382 The Queen v. Klassen 382 Notes 384 B. Laskin, "Note on The Queen v. Klassen" 385 Caloil Inc. v. AG Canada 387 K. Swinton, The Supreme Court and Canadian Federalism: The Laskin-Dickson Years 388 Note on Dominion Stores Ltd. v. The Queen 388 Note on the Federal Power to Implement International Agreements 390 B. General Regulation of Trade 390 K. Swinton, The Supreme Court and Canadian Federalism: The Laskin-Dickson Years 390 Note on Labatt Breweries of Canada Ltd. v. AG Canada 392 Notes 394 General Motors of Canada Ltd. v. City National Leasing 396 Notes and Questions 406 Kirkbi AG v. Ritvik Holdings Inc 408

xx Detailed Table of Contents IV. Strengthening the Canadian Economic Union 413 A. Constitutional Reform to Reduce Barriers 413 Report of the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons, A Renewed Canada 414 Questions 415 B. Constitutional Change Through Intergovernmental Cooperation: The Agreement on Internal Trade 416 C. Constitutional Change Through the Courts 417 D. Constitutional Change Through International Agreements 418 Chapter Eleven Criminal Law 421 I. Federal Powers Over Criminal Law 421 Reference re Validity of Section 5(a) of the Dairy Industry Act (Margarine Reference) 422 Notes 423 RJR MacDonald Inc. v. Canada (Attorney General) 425 Note: The Requirement of a Criminal Form 432 R v. Hydro-Quebec 433 Notes 443 Note: Reference re Firearms Act (Can.) 445 Note: Reference re Assisted Human Reproduction Act (Quebec Court of Appeal) 448 II. Provincial Power to Regulate Morality and Public Order 451 Re Nova Scotia Board of Censors v. McNeil 452 Notes 455 Westendorp v. The Queen 456 Note 458 Note: Provincial Commissions of Inquiry and the Criminal Law Power 461 Chapter Twelve Instruments of Flexibility in the Federal System 463 I. Policy Instruments and Flexible Federalism 464 A. The Spending Power 464 K.G. Banting, "The Past Speaks to the Future: Lessons from the Postwar Social Union" 464 Note on Shared-Cost Programs 466 The Spending Power and the Constitution 468 Normative Critiques and Defences of the Spending Power... 471 Note on Proposed Constitutional Amendments 474 Note on the Enforcement of National Standards 475 Note on Equalization 477 Note on Federal Taxation Powers 478

Detailed Table of Contents xxi B. Intergovernmental Agreements 478 Reference Re Canada Assistance Plan (BC) 478 Notes 480 C. Delegation 481 Coughlin v. Ontario Highway Transport Board 482 II. Amending the Constitution 485 A. The Canadian Process of Constitutional Amendment 485 1. Design Issues 485 2. The Canadian Amendment Process 486 B. Evaluating the Amending Formula 488 1. Constitutional Amendment After 1982 488 2. Is Part V Undemocratic? 490 3. Constitutional Amendment and Quebec Sovereignty 491 Reference re Secession of Quebec 493 Notes 498 PART THREE THE JUDICIARY Chapter Thirteen The Judicial Function 505 I. Introduction 505 II. The Court Structure 505 Note on the Federal Court of Canada and Its Jurisdiction 507 Note on the Jurisdiction of Provincial Superior Courts Over Constitutional Issues 509 III. Separation of Powers and Section 96 510 Note on John East Iron Works 511 Reference re Residential Tenancies Act 513 Notes 516 Sobeys Stores Ltd. v. Yeomans and Labour Standards Tribunal (NS) 516 Reference re Amendments to the Residential Tenancies Act (NS) 521 McEvoy v. Attorney General of New Brunswick and Attorney General of Canada 527 Note on Section 96 Constraints on Parliament 530 Note on Appellate and Review Jurisdiction 532 Crevier v. Quebec (Attorney General) 534 IV. The Independence of the Judiciary 536 Note on the Provincial Judges Reference 538 V. The Judicial Appointment Process 541

xxii Detailed Table of Contents PART FOUR ABORIGINAL PEOPLES Chapter Fourteen Aboriginal Peoples and the Constitution 545 I. Introduction 545 II. Common Law Foundations of Constitutional Recognition 546 Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report, vol. 2, Restructuring the Relationship 547 Guerin v. The Queen 551 Notes 558 III. The Constitutional Entrenchment of Aboriginal Rights 558 R v. Sparrow 558 Notes 571 R v. Van derpeet 571 Notes 583 R v. Gladstone 585 Notes 589 IV. Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal Title 592 Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 594 Notes and Questions 610 V. Treaty Rights 613 Patrick Macklem, "First Nations Self-Government and the Borders of the Canadian Legal Imagination" 613 R v. Marshall 615 Notes and Questions 626 VI. The Duty to Consult 629 VII. Metis Rights 633 R v. Powley 634 VIII. Distribution of Legislative Authority 641 Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 642 Notes 645 IX. Aboriginal Rights of Self-Government 646 R v. Pamajewon 647 Notes 649 Patrick Macklem, Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada 650 Mitchell v. MNR 658

Detailed Table of Contents xxiii PART FIVE RIGHTS Chapter Fifteen Antecedents of the Charter 671 I. The Common Law Constitution 671 A.V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution 672 W. Kaplan, State and Salvation: The Jehovah's Witnesses and Their Fight for Civil Rights 674 Roncarelli v. Duplessis 677 II. Rights and Federalism 682 A. Federalism and Race 683 Union Colliery Co. v. Bryden 684 Cunningham v. Tomey Homma 686 B. Ryder, "Racism and the Constitution: British Columbia Anti-Asian Legislation, 1872-1923" 687 Quong Wing v. The King 688 B. The Implied Bill of Rights 694 Reference re Alberta Statutes 694 Saumur v. City of Quebec 699 Switzman v. Elbling 705 Dupond v. City of Montreal etal. 709 III. The Canadian Bill of Rights 712 The Canadian Bill of Rights 712 Chapter Sixteen The Advent of the Charter 719 I. Introduction 719 II. The Adoption of the Charter 719 The Honourable Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Minister of Justice, A Canadian Charter of Human Rights, January 1968 719 A. Cairns, Charter Versus Federalism: The Dilemmas of Constitutional Reform 722 P. Russell, "The Political Purposes of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" 725 L. Weinrib, "Of Diligence and Dice: Reconstituting Canada's Constitution" 728 L.E. Weinrib, "Canada's Charter of Rights: Paradigm Lost?"... 730 M.E. Gold, "The Mask of Objectivity: Politics and Rhetoric in the Supreme Court of Canada" 734 III. The Merits of Entrenchment and the Legitimacy of Judicial Review 736 W. Bogart, Courts and Country 737 A. Petter, "Immaculate Deception: The Charter's Hidden Agenda" 739 L. Weinrib," 'Limitations on Rights' in a Constitutional Democracy" 743

xxiv Detailed Table of Contents P.W. Hogg and A.A. Bushell, "The Charter Dialogue Between Courts and Legislatures (Or Perhaps the Charter of Rights Isn't Such a Bad Thing After All)" 746 Vriend v. Alberta 751 Chapter Seventeen The Framework of the Charter 757 I. Interpreting Rights 757 A. The Purposive Approach 757 Hunter v. Southam 758 Notes and Questions 760 B. Aids to Interpretation 761 1. Interpretive Provisions in the Charter 762 2. Parliamentary and Committee Debates 762 3. Canadian Pre-Charter Jurisprudence 763 4. Comparative and International Sources 763 Patrick Macklem, "Social Rights in Canada" 764 II. Defining Limitations: Section 1 765 A. Prescribed by Law 766 R v. Nova Scotia Pharmaceutical Society 769 B. Justification 774 1. The Oakes Test 774 R v. Oakes 774 Notes and Questions 777 2. The Subsequent Development of the Oakes Test: Context and Deference 780 Edmonton Journal v. Alberta (Attorney General) 781 Irwin Toy Ltd. v. Quebec (Attorney General) 783 Sujit Choudhry, "So What Is the Real Legacy of Oakes 7. Two Decades of Proportionality Analysis Under the Canadian Charter's Section 1" 787 III. The Override 790 Ford v. Quebec (Attorney General) 791 Notes and Questions 795 Chapter Eighteen Application 797 I. Introduction: The Debate About Application to Private Action 797 Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v. Dolphin Delivery Ltd 797 Notes and Questions 800 II. Governmental Action 802 A. Governmental Actors 802 1. Entities Controlled by Government 803 McKinney v. University ofguelph 803 Notes 807

Detailed Table of Contents xxv 2. Entities Exercising Governmental Functions 811 Godbout v. Longueuil (City) 811 Notes 815 B. Governmental Acts 816 1. Entities Implementing Government Programs 816 Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 816 2. Entities Exercising Statutory Powers of Compulsion 819 Notes 820 III. Governmental Inaction 821 Vriend v. Alberta 821 Notes 823 IV. Application of the Charter to Courts and the Common Law 825 A. Reliance by Government on Common Law 825 B. Reliance on Common Law in Private Litigation 826 Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto 827 Notes 829 V. Territorial Limits on the Application of the Charter 830 VI. Who Is Protected by the Charter? 835 Chapter Nineteen Freedom of Religion 837 I. Introduction 837 II. Sunday Observance and the Scope of Section 2(a) 842 R v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd 843 Notes and Questions 850 Edwards Books and Art Ltd. v. The Queen 851 Notes and Questions 862 III. The Restriction and Accommodation of Religious Practice 865 Syndicat Northcrest v. Amselem 865 Notes and Questions 876 Gerard Bouchard and Charles Taylor, Building the Future: A Time for Reconciliation 878 Note: Multani v. Commission scolaire Marguerite-Bourgeoys 880 Congregation des temoins de Jehovah de St-Jerome-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village) 880 Notes and Questions 884 Alberta v. Hutterian Brethren of Wilson Colony 885 Trinity Western University v. British Columbia College of Teachers 906 Notes and Questions 913 IV. Government Support for Religion 915 Zylberberg v. Sudbury Board of Education (Director) 916 Notes and Questions 921 Chamberlain v. Surrey School District No. 36 925 Notes and Questions 933

xxvi Detailed Table of Contents V. Religious Families and Religious Communities 934 Note: Section 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867 and the Public Funding of Religious Schools 935 Adler v. Ontario 937 Notes 949 Note: B.(R.) v. Children's Aid Society of Metropolitan Toronto... 950 Bruker v. Marcovitz 951 Notes and Questions 962 Chapter Twenty Freedom of Expression 963 I. Introduction: Purposes of the Guarantee 963 R v. Keegstra 963 R. Moon, The Constitutional Protection of Freedom of Expression 966 II. The Scope and Limits of Freedom of Expression 970 Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v. Dolphin Delivery Ltd 971 Notes and Questions 973 twin Toy Ltd. v. Quebec (AG) 975 Notes and Questions 984 HI. Commercial Expression 987 RJR MacDonald Inc. v. Canada (Attorney General) 988 Notes and Questions 1003 Canada (Attorney General) v. JTI-Macdonald Corp. 1005 Notes and Questions 1015 R v. Guignard 1015 Notes and Questions 1017 IV. Hate Speech 1017 R v. Keegstra 1018 Notes and Questions 1035 V. Regulation of Sexually Explicit Expression 1041 R v. Butler 1042 Notes and Questions 1053 Note: Little Sisters Book and Art Emporium v. Canada (Minister of Justice) 1054 R v. Labaye 1059 Note: R v. Sharpe 1066 Questions 1068 VI. Controls on Election Spending 1069 Harper v. Canada (Attorney General) 1069 Notes and Questions 1088 VII. Access to Public Property 1089 Montreal (City) v. 2952-1366 Quebec Inc 1090 Notes and Questions 1098

Detailed Table of Contents xxvii VIII. State Support for Expression 1102 Haig v. Canada 1102 Notes and Questions 1106 Native Women's Assn. of Canada v. Canada 1106 Baier v. Alberta 1111 Notes and Questions 1116 Chapter Twenty-One Freedom of Association 1117 I. Introduction 1117 II. The Right to Associate with Others 1118 Note on the Labour Trilogy 1118 Notes on Professional Institute of the Public Service of Canada v. Northwest Territories 1125 P. Macklem, "Developments in Employment Law: The 1990-91 Term" 1126 Dunmore v. Ontario (Attorney General) 1128 Health Services and Support-Facilities Subsector Bargaining Assn. v. British Columbia 1135 Notes 1147 III. The Freedom Not to Associate with Others 1148 R v. Advance Cutting & Coring Ltd 1152 Chapter Twenty-Two Life, Liberty, and Security of the Person 1159 I. Introduction 1159 Reference re Section 94(2) of the Motor Vehicle Act (BC) 1161 II. Section 7 and Bodily Integrity 1164 R v. Morgentaler 1165 Note on Abortion: Some Other Issues 1177 Rodriguez v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 1178 Notes 1189 III. Life, Liberty, and Security of the Person and Decisional Autonomy 1192 B.(R.) v. Children's Aid Society of Metropolitan Toronto 1193 IV. Section 7 and Social Citizenship 1197 Gosselin v. Quebec (Attorney General) 1197 Chaoulli v. Quebec (Attorney General) 1205 Notes 1228 Chapter Twenty-Three Equality Rights 1231 I. The Constitutional History of Equality 1231 W.S. Tarnopolsky, "The Equality Rights" 1232 W.S. Tarnopolsky, "The Equality Rights in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" 1233 Note: The Equal Protection Clause in the US Constitution 1235 D. Gibson, The Law of the Charter: Equality Rights 1236

xxviii Detailed Table of Contents II. Early Interpretation and Application of Section 15: The Andrews Test and the 1995 Trilogy 1237 Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia 1237 Notes 1243 III. The "Equality Trilogy of 1995" 1248 IV. The Law Test 1250 Law v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration)... 1250 Notes and Questions 1266 V. The Kapp Test 1268 R v. Kapp 1268 Notes 1277 VI. Equality's Three Steps 1280 A. Differential Treatment 1280 Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 1280 Notes 1286 C. Sheppard, "Of Forest Fires and Systemic Discrimination: A Review of British Columbia (Public Service Employee Relations Commission) v. BCGSEU" 1289 Auton (Guardian ad litem of) v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 1293 B. Enumerated and Analogous Grounds 1297 D. Pothier, "Connecting Grounds of Discrimination to Real People's Real Experiences" 1298 Corbiere v. Canada (Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs) 1300 Notes 1305 C. The Appropriate Comparator Group 1307 Hodge v. Canada (Minister of Human Resources Development) 1308 Auton (Guardian ad litem of) v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 1312 Notes and Questions 1314 D. Disadvantage/Discrimination 1315 M.v.H. 1315 Notes and Questions 1322 Note: Gosselin v. Quebec (Attorney General) 1325 Note: Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth and the Law v. Canada (Attorney General) 1326 Note: The Implications of R v. Kapp for the Disadvantage/Discrimination Analysis 1327 S.R. Moreau, "The Wrongs of Unequal Treatment" 1328

Detailed Table of Contents xxix Chapter Twenty-Four Language Rights 1337 I. Introduction 1337 A. Braen, "Language Rights" 1338 P. A. Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada 1340 II. Language Rights and the Constitution 1343 A. The Federal Bargain 1343 B. Charter Language Rights 1346 III. Interpreting Language Rights 1347 AG Quebec v. Blaikie (No. 1) 1347 Notes 1348 Societe des Acadiens du Nouveau-Brunswick Inc. v. Association of Parents for Fairness in Education 1349 Notes 1353 Mahe v. Alberta 1355 D. Reaume and L. Green, "Education and Linguistic Security in the Charter" 1362 Notes 1366 Ford v. Quebec (AG) 1368 Notes 1373 IV. Proposals for Constitutional Amendment 1375 Chapter Twenty-Five Enforcement of Rights 1377 I. Remedies 1377 A. Introduction 1377 K. Roach, Constitutional Remedies in Canada 1378 B. Remedies Under Section 52(1) of the Constitution Act, 1982 1380 1. Introduction and Overview 1380 Schachter v. Canada 1381 2. Underinclusive Laws and Reading In 1391 Vriend v. Alberta 1391 M.v.H. 1398 Notes and Questions 1400 3. Limits on the Availability of Retroactive Relief and the Justification for Prospective Relief 1401 Canada (Attorney General) v. Hislop 1401 Notes and Questions 1409 4. Severance and Reading Down 1409 5. Constitutional Exemptions 1412 6. Temporary Suspension of the Declaration of Invalidity 1413 C. Remedies Under Section 24(1) of the Charter 1414 Little Sisters Book and Art Emporium v. Canada 1415 Notes and Questions 1420 Note on Structural Injunctions 1420

xxx Detailed Table of Contents Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education) 1421 Notes and Questions 1436 Note on Damages 1436 II. Standing: Who Can Raise Charter Issues? 1437 III. Jurisdiction: Where Can Charter Issues Be Raised? 1439 Notes and Questions 1442