A CASEBOOK ON SCOTTISH CRIMINAL LAW

A CASEBOOK ON SCOTTISH CRIMINAL LAW Fourth Edition Christopher H.W. Gane, LL.B., Professor of Scots Law, University of Aberdeen Charles N. Stoddart, LL.B., LL.M. (McGill), Ph.D., Formerly Sheriff of Lothian and Borders at Edinburgh James Chalmers, LL.B., LL.M, Dip.L.P., Senior Lecturer in Law, University of Edinburgh W. GREEN SOS THOMSON REUTERS

CONTENTS Preface to Fourth Edition Preface to Third Edition Preface to Second Edition Preface to First Edition Table of Cases Table of Statutes Table of Statutory Instruments Table of Conventions Page v vii ix xi xxi xlv li liii PART I GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY CHAPTER 1 SOURCES OF SCOTTISH CRIMINAL LAW 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. SOURCES OF THE CRIMINAL LAW IN SCOTLAND 2 A. Legislation 2 (a) Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament 2 (b) Acts of the Scottish Parliament 3 (c) Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland 5 (d) Subordinate legislation 5 (e) Interpreting criminal statutes 6 B. The common law 6 (a) Judicial development of the common law 6 (b) The declaratory power of the High Court 7 (c) Judicial precedent and criminal law 8 C. Legal writings 9 D. European law 10 E. Human rights 10 (a) The construction of legislation 18 (b) Convention rights and the common law 18 (c) Convention rights and acts of the Scottish Executive 18 F. Other aspects of international law 20 3. THE SCOTTISH CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 20 A. Solemn and summary procedure 20 B. The criminal courts 21 (a) The High Court 21 (b) The sheriff court 21 (c) The justice of the peace court 21 (d) The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council: "Devolution Issues" 22 (e) Criminal appeals 22 C. The presumption of innocence and the burden of proof 22 D. The investigation and prosecution of offences 25

xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER 2 ACTUS REUS AND MENS REA 1. THE ANATOMY OF A CRIME: ACTUS REUS, MENS REA AND DEFENCES 26 2. THE CONDUCT ELEMENT IN CRIME: ACTUS REUS 30 A. Criminal acts 30 B. Criminal omissions 31 (a) Breach of a duty imposed by law 31 (b) Duty assumed by the accused 37 (c) Discharging the duty 38 C. States of affairs 41 3. THE MENTAL ELEMENT IN CRIME: MENS REA 44 A. General approaches to the mental element 44 (a) Normative and descriptive approaches 44 (b) Objective and subjective mens rea 47 B. Particular forms of the mental element 48 (a) Intention 48 (b) Recklessness 50 (c) Knowledge and wilful blindness 53 C. Transferred mens rea 53 D. Error 56 (a) Error of fact 56 (b) Error of law 58 E. Motive 60 4. COINCIDENCE OF ACTUS REUS AND MENS REA 60 CHAPTER 3 STRICT, VICARIOUS AND CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY 1. STRICT RESPONSIBILITY 68 A. Strict responsibility and human rights 68 B. The presumption in favour of mens rea 71 C. Terms implying mens rea 75 (a) "Knowingly" 76 (b) "Causing" and "permitting" 77 (c) Possession 83 2. VICARIOUS RESPONSIBILITY 87 3. DEFENCES TO CHARGES INVOLVING STRICT AND VICARIOUS RESPONSIBILITY 90 4. CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY 95 CHAPTER 4 CAUSATION 1. FACTUAL AND LEGAL CAUSATION 105 2. CAUSAL CRITERIA 105 3. SUBSISTING CONDITIONS 106 A. Medical conditions 106 B. Other personal circumstances or conditions 107 C. Other subsisting conditions 109 4. SUPERVENING CAUSES: NOVUS ACTUS INTERVENIENS 109 A. The victim's contribution 109 (a) Consumption of harmful substances supplied to the victim 109

CONTENTS XV (b) Disregard of medical advice by the victim 123 (c) Measures of self-protection by the victim: escape 124 (d) Self-endangerment by the victim: rescue cases 127 (e) Deliberate self-harm by the victim 127 B. Third party interventions 132 (a) Medical treatment 132 (b) Other "therapeutic" interventions 133 (c) Non-medical intervention by a third party 134 C. Supervening events 137 CHAPTER 5 ART AND PART LIABILITY 1. THE BASIC PRINCIPLE 141 2. ACQUITTAL OF CO-ACCUSED 146 3. ESTABLISHING THE COMMON PURPOSE 148 (a) Assistance prior to the commission of the offence 148 (b) Participation in the commission of the offence 149 (c) Joining in an offence already under way 151 (d) Assistance after the offence 153 4. WITHDRAWAL FROM THE COMMON PURPOSE 153 5. RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE CONSEQUENCES 155 6. EXCLUSION OF ART AND PART GUILT 171 A. Victims and art and part guilt 171 B. Offences excluding art and part liability 173 7. ART AND PART IN STATUTORY OFFENCES 173 CHAPTER 6 INCHOATE OFFENCES 1. INCITEMENT 175 2. CONSPIRACY 177 A. The general definition of conspiracy 178 B. The requirement of more than one party 181 C. Conspiracy and the "sub-heads" 186 D. Conspiracies with a foreign element 187 E. Withdrawal from the conspiracy 190 3. ATTEMPTS 190 A. The actus reus of attempted crime 190 (a) Moving from preparation to perpetration 191 (b) The last act required of the accused for completion of the crime 192 (c) The opportunity for effective repentance 194 B. The mental element in attempted crime 197 4. IMPOSSIBILITY 197 5. COMBINATION OF INCHOATE OFFENCES 206 CHAPTER 7 DEFENCES 1. THE NATURE OF DEFENCES 207 A. Introduction: how defences work 207 B. Special defences 207

xvi CONTENTS C. Justification and excuse 208 2. JUSTIFICATION 209 A. The use of force in self-defence and the defence of public interests 209 B. Other cases of use of force 218 C. Human rights 222 D. Compliance with European Union law 222 E. Compliance with international law 222 3. EXCUSES 225 A. Lack of capacity 225 (a) Non-age 225 (b) Insanity 228 (c) Diminished responsibility 233 (d) Automatism 234 (e) Voluntary intoxication 250 B. Consent 258 C. Threats and compulsion 258 (a) Coercion 259 (b) Necessity 265 (c) Superior orders 275 D. Provocation 279 E. Entrapment 279 PART II OFFENCES AGAINST PERSONAL INTEGRITY CHAPTER 8 NON-FATAL OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON 1. ASSAULT 284 A. The actus reus of assault 284 B. The mens rea of assault 286 2. AGGRAVATED ASSAULTS 292 Mens rea in aggravated assault 298 3. JUSTIFICATION AND EXCUSE IN ASSAULT 301 A. Lawful chastisement 301 (a) The limits of lawful chastisement 301 (b) The legal foundation of the defence 302 B. Consent 303 C. Provocation 309 4. RECKLESS INJURY AND RECKLESS ENDANGERMENT 310 A. The actus reus of reckless injury 311 B. The actus reus of reckless endangerment 318 C. The mens rea of reckless injury and reckless endangerment: what kind of recklessness is required? 322 5. CAUSING REAL INJURY 326 6. ABDUCTION 327 7. ILL-TREATMENT OF PERSONS UNDER SIXTEEN 335 A. What constitutes "neglect"? 336 B. What is "wilful" neglect? 342 8. ISSUING THREATS 344 9. STALKING AND HARASSMENT 347 10. "HATE CRIME": DISPLAYING RACIAL OR RELIGIOUS PREJUDICE 348 11. PREVENTIVE OFFENCES: KNIVES AND OTHER WEAPONS 354

CONTENTS xvii CHAPTER 9 SEXUAL OFFENCES 1. RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULTS 364 2. SEXUAL COERCION 367 3. SEXUAL EXPOSURE AND VOYEURISM 369 4. CONSENT AND REASONABLE BELIEF 370 A. Consent 370 B. Belief in consent 373 5. OFFENCES INVOLVING CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS 377 A. The existing law 377 (a) Sexual intercourse with girb under 16 377 (b) Lewd, indecent and libidinous practices and behaviour 377 B. The 2009 Act 379 (a) Offences against young children 379 (b) Offences against older children 382 6. INCEST AND RELATED OFFENCES 386 A. Incest (s.l of the 1995 Act) 387 B. Intercourse with a step-child (s.2 of the 1995 Act) 387 C. Intercourse with a child under 16 by a person in a position of trust (s3 of the 1995 Act) 387 7. HOMOSEXUAL OFFENCES 388 A. Sexual acts between men 388 B. Sexual acts between women 389 8. OFFENCES RELATING TO PROSTITUTION 389 A. Soliciting for the purpose of prostitution 389 B. Living on the earnings of prostitution 390 CHAPTER 10 HOMICIDE AND RELATED MATTERS 1. THE ACTUS REUS OF HOMICIDE 395 A. The beginning of life 395 B. The end of life 400 C. The protection of the unborn child 403 (a) Abortion 403 (b) Concealment of pregnancy 406 D. The death of another suicide, assisted suicide and related questions 406 2. MURDER 408 A. The distinguishing feature of murder 408 B. (Wickedly) intentional killing 409 C. Wicked recklessness 410 (a) The nature of wicked recklessness 410 (b) Wicked recklessness and intention to do bodily harm 413 (c) How reckless must recklessness be to be "wicked"? 420 (d) Wicked recklessness and indifference to the consequences 425 D. Constructive murder? Killing in the course of other crimes 425 3. CULPABLE HOMICIDE 429 A. Voluntary culpable homicide or "mitigated murder" 429 (a) Killing under provocation 429 (b) Diminished responsibility 447 B. "Involuntary" culpable homicide 462

xviii CONTENTS (a) Reckless killing 462 (b) Death resulting from an unlawful act: assault resulting in death 468 (c) Death resulting from an unlawful act: other cases 470 PART III OFFENCES AGAINST PROPERTY INTERESTS Chapter 11 THEFT, EMBEZZLEMENT AND RELATED OFFENCES 1. THEFT 472 A. The actus reus of theft 472 (a) From "taking" to "appropriation" 472 (b) Property that can be stolen 482 (c) Belonging to another 487 (d) Without consent 489 B. The mens rea of theft 491 (a) The intention to deprive 491 (b) Dishonesty 498 2. HOUSEBREAKING, OPENING LOCKFAST PLACES AND PREPARATORY OR PREVENTIVE OFFENCES 500 A. Housebreaking 500 (a) What constitutes "housebreaking"? 500 (b) The purpose of the housebreaking 502 B. Opening lockfast places 505 C. Other preparatory and preventive offences 506 3. EMBEZZLEMENT 508 A. Embezzlement: what is it? 508 B. Distinguishing theft from embezzlement 509 C. Mens rea of embezzlement 513 4. OFFENCES OF TEMPORARY DEPRIVATION 515 A. Clandestine taking and using 515 B. Taking and driving away motor vehicles 517 CHAPTER 12 ROBBERTY AND EXTORTION 1. ROBBERY 518 A. Theft and robbery 518 B. Robbery and violence 518 C. Assault and robbery 519 D. Threats 520 E. The timing and the purpose of the violence 520 F. Robbery of a ship: piracy 521 2. EXTORTION 523 CHAPTER 13 FRAUD, FORGERY AND UTTERING 1. FRAUD 531 A. The actus reus of common law fraud 531 (a) The false pretence 531

CONTENTS xix (b) The practical result 537 (c) The causal connection 539 B. The mens rea of fraud 540 2. FORGERY AND UTTERING 541 CHAPTER 14 RESET 1. THE ACTUS REUS OF RESET 545 A. The concept of being "privy to the retention" of property dishonestly acquired 545 B. Theft and reset mutually exclusive 549 C. What can be resetted? 549 D. The wife's privilege 550 E. When does property cease to be stolen? 550 2. THE MENS REA OF RESET 552 A. Guilty knowledge 552 B. Intention to keep from the owner 553 CHAPTER 15 DAMAGING AND DESTROYING PROPERTY 1. MALICIOUS MISCHIEF 554 A. The actus reus of malicious mischief 554 B. The mens rea of malicious mischief 564 2. FIRE-RAISING 568 3. VANDALISM 581 PART IV OFFENCES AGAINST COMMUNITY INTERESTS CHAPTER 16 OFFENCES AGAINST PUBLIC ORDER AND DECENCY 1. BREACH OF THE PEACE 585 A. The actus reus of breach of the peace 586 B. The mens rea of breach of the peace 595 2. MOBBING 598 3. PUBLIC INDECENCY 601 CHAPTER 17 OFFENCES AGAINST THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 1. WASTING POLICE TIME BY GIVING FALSE INFORMATION 616 2. PERVERTING OR ATTEMPTING TO PERVERT THE COURSE OF JUSTICE 619 3. PERJURY 622 4. OFFENCES INVOLVING CONVICTED PERSONS 628 A. Harbouring or concealing a convicted person 628 B. Escaping from lawful custody 631 5. CONTEMPT OF COURT 632 A. Contempt in the face of the court 633

xx CONTENTS (a) Misconduct in court 633 (b) Failure by witnesses, parties or legal representatives to appear 636 (c) Prevarication by witnesses 639 B. Protection from prejudicial pre-trial publicity 641 Index 643